LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 


ALASKA 


VOLUME  II 


SMITHSONIAN    INSTITUTION 


HARRIMAN  ALASKA  SERIES 
VOLUME   II 

HISTORY,  GEOGRAPHY, 
RESOURCES 


BY 

WILLIAM  H.  DALL,  CHARLES  KEELER, 

B.  E.  FERNOW,  HENRY  GANNETT, 

WILLIAM  H.  BREWER,  C.  HART  MERRIAM, 

GEORGE  BIRD  GRINNELL,  and 

M.  L.  WASHBURN 


(PUBLICATION  1991) 


CITY    OF    WASHINGTON 

PUBLISHED   BY  THE   SMITHSONIAN   INSTITUTION 
1910 

KRAUS  REPRINT  CO., 

New  York 
1972 

LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 


ADVERTISEMENT. 

The  publication  of  the  series  of  volumes  on  the 
Harriman  Alaska  Expedition  of  1899,  heretofore  pri- 
vately printed,  has  been  transferred  to  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  by  Mrs.  Edward  H.  Harriman,  and  the 
work  will  hereafter  be  known  as  the  Harriman  Alaska 
Series  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

The  remainder  of  the  edition  of  Volumes  I  to  V, 
and  VIII  to  XIII,  as  also  Volumes  VI  and  VII  in 
preparation,  together  with  any  additional  volumes  that 
may  hereafter  appear,  will  bear  special  Smithsonian 
title  pages. 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION, 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  JULY,  1910 


Reprinted  with  the  permission  of  the  original  publisher 

KRAUS  REPRINT  CO. 
A  U.S.  Division  of  Kraus-Thomson  Organization  Limited 

Printed  in  U.S.A. 


HARRIMAN   ALASKA    EXPEDITION 
WITH  COOPERATION   OF  WASHINGTON  ACADEMY   OF  SCIENCES 


ALASKA 


VOLUME  II 


HISTORY,  GEOGRAPHY,  RESOURCES 


BY  WILLIAM  H.  DALL,  CHARLES  KEELER,  B.  E.  FERNOW 

HENRY  GANNETT,  WILLIAM   H.  BREWER,  C.  HART  MERRIAM 

GEORGE  BIRD  GRINNELL  AND  M.  L.  WASHBURN 


NEW  YORK 
DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  &  COMPANY 

1  902 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
DAVIS 


COPYRIGHT,  1901, 

BY 
EDWARD  H.  HARRIMAN. 


THE  DISCOVERY  AND  EXPLORATION  OF 
ALASKA 

BY  WILLIAM   HEALEY  DALL 

HE  history  of  Alaska  is  practically  the  history 
of  exploration  and  trade  along  its  coasts  and 
within  its  borders.  It  may  be  conveniently 
divided  into  characteristic  periods.  First 
comes  the  era  of  discovery  and  exploration  by  inde- 
pendent parties  of  Cossacks,  hunters,  and  fur-traders, 
whose  reports  led  to  the  dispatch  of  the  official  expe- 
ditions commanded  by  Bering,  whose  discoveries,  in 
turn,  opened  the  floodgates  for  a  tide  of  adventurers. 
This  period  may  be  said  to  comprise  the  whole  of  the 
eighteenth  century  up  to  June,  1799.  The  second  period 
began  with  the  chartering  of  an  imperial  monopoly,  the 
Russian-American  Company,  to  which  was  confided  in 
that  year  the  control  and  exploitation  of  the  Russian  pos- 
sessions in  America.  The  characteristic  figure  in  the 
panorama  of  the  events  of  this  era  is  Baranoff. 

In  1867  a  third  period  began  with  the  American  occu- 
pation of  the  territory  ;  followed  by  the  lease  of  the  seal 
islands  to  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  and  by  the 
exploitation  of  the  fisheries.  A  condition  of  anarchy  pre- 
vailed over  the  greater  part  of  the  Territory,  due  to  legis- 
lative neglect  and  executive  indifference.  With  the  open- 
ing of  the  Klondike  gold  fields  in  1895,  a  fourth  era  began, 
into  which  the  country  has  barely  entered,  and  the  outcome 
of  which  it  is  yet  too  soon  to  predict.  So  far  it  has  been 
characterized  by  renewed  exploration;  by  the  grant  from 

(185) 


1 86  DALL 

Congress  of  some  tardy  and  far  from  adequate  legislation 
looking  toward  good  order  and  settlement  ;  by  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  fur  trade  ;  and  by  the  development  of 
mineral  resources  in  the  line  of  the  precious  metals. 

The  geographer  Gerhard  Friedrich  Muller  during  his 
researches  in  Siberia  about  1750,  ransacked  the  archives 
of  Yakutsk  and  other  East  Siberian  settlements  for  records 
of  early  explorations.  His  extracts  from  them  are  all  that 
are  saved  to  us  of  those  invaluable  reports,  the  originals 
of  which  were  long  since  destroyed  by  the  fires  which 
have  repeatedly  ravaged  the  cities  of  eastern  Siberia. 
Among  these  extracts  is  found  one  relating  to  the  journey 
of  Peter  Iliunsen  PopofF  who  was  sent  to  East  Cape  in 
January,  1711,  with  two  interpreters,  to  endeavor  to  in- 
duce the  obstinate  Chukchi  natives  to  pay  tribute,  and  to 
obtain  such  information  about  the  region  as  could  be  se- 
cured. The  party  returned  to  the  trading  post  on  the 
Anadyr  River  in  the  following  September.  They  had  not 
been  able  to  convince  the  Chukchi  that  there  was  any  suffi- 
cient reason  for  paying  tribute,  but  they  brought  back, 
among  other  items  of  information,  the  news  that  beyond 
the  islands  off  the  Chukchi  peninsula  lay  a  large  conti- 
nent, forested,  inhabited,  with  great  rivers,  where  were  a 
people  with  tails  like  dogs,  wearing  skin  clothing,  and 
living  upon  wild  reindeer  and  sea  animals.  The  learned 
academician  apologizes  for  recording  this  fable  of  the  wild 
Chukchi,  which,  however,  carries  with  it  the  confirmation 
of  the  story  of  PopofFs  visit ;  since  we  now  know  that  it  is 
a  common  practice  of  the  American  Eskimo  to  wear  the 
tail  of  a  wolf  or  dog  at  the  back  of  his  girdle  on  cere- 
monial occasions,  or  while  traveling. 

This  is  the  first  authentic  mention  of  the  continent  east 
of  Bering  Strait  and  its  inhabitants,  though  mention  had 
been  made  by  earlier  explorers  of  accounts  by  the  Chuk- 
chi of  the  Diomede  and  St.  Lawrence  Islands. 


MENDING   HIS    CANOE 


SITKA.    INDIAN    HUTS 


BERING'S  EXPLORATIONS  187 

The  exploration  and  gradual  conquest  and  settlement 
of  eastern  Siberia  was  the  work  of  a  multitude  of  adven- 
turers, known  generically  as  Promishleniki  or  hunters. 
They  included  the  more  turbulent  and  enterprising  of  the 
border  population  of  Siberia,  such  skirmishers  of  half 
savage,  wholly  unmoral,  humanity  as  most  nations  drive 
before  them,  in  an  advance  into  the  wilderness.  Power- 
ful from  the  arms  which  they  borrowed  from  civilization, 
desperately  energetic,  they  defied  cold,  starvation,  war, 
the  perils  of  the  sea,  and  the  unknown  terrors  of  the 
wilderness,  in  their  love  of  adventure  and  greed  of  gain. 
Penetrating  a  region  like  a  creeping  conflagration,  con- 
suming and  destroying,  yet  they  leave  it  cleared,  after  a 
fashion,  for  the  advent  of  a  real  civilization.  In  Asia 
nothing  but  the  sordid  poverty  of  the  Chukchi  could  hold 
its  own  against  them. 

Rumors  of  their  discoveries  gradually  filtered  through 
the  wastes  of  Siberia  to  Russia.  An  expedition  was  fitted 
out  to  ascertain  the  facts  and  especially  whether  America 
and  Asia  were  really  separated.  Vitus  Bering,  a  Danish 
officer  naturalized  in  Russia,  was  assigned  to  the  com- 
mand, with  Alexis  ChirikofF  as  his  chief  assistant.  July 
20,  1728,  the  expedition  left  Kamchatka  for  the  north, 
sailed  through  Bering  Strait  without  seeing  the  Diomedes 
or  the  American  shore,  and  presently  returned  to  Kam- 
chatka. The  next  year  in  June  he  sailed  eastward  from 
Kamchatka  some  sixty  miles  in  vain  search  of  the  Ameri- 
can continent,  and  then  made  his  way  back  to  Okhotsk. 
A  second  expedition  was  projected  in  1732,  and  under  the 
same  commander  sailed  from  Kamchatka  June  4,  1741,  to 
find  the  American  coast.  On  July  i8th,  Bering  anchored 
under  the  lee  of  Wingham  Island  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Copper  River  and  thence  made  his  way  westward  along 
the  line  of  the  Aleutian  chain  to  be  finally  wrecked  on 
the  island  which  now  bears  his  name,  where  he  died  of 


I 88  DALL 

scurvy  December  8,  1741.     The  survivors  reached  Kam-. 
chatka  on  the  2yth  of  August,  1742. 

The  immediate  result  of  the  arrival  of  the  survivors  of 
the  expedition  with  their  wonderful  tales  of  the  abundance 
of  fur  animals  and  the  near  proximity  of  a  great  archipel- 
ago, was  to  stimulate  every  inhabitant  of  the  region  who 
could  leave  Kamchatka,  to  push  out  and  secure  riches. 

As  iron  and  most  necessaries  for  shipbuilding  had  to 
cross  Siberia,  and  were  correspondingly  dear,  the  Promish- 
leniki  made  themselves  boats  of  planks  sewed  together 
with  rawhide  thongs  and  caulked  with  moss  and  oil. 
Cattle  were  few  and  precious,  salt  meat  hardly  to  be  had. 
The  traders  stocked  up  with  salmon  and  in  their  crazy 
boats  pushed  boldly  out  to  sea.  On  reaching  Bering 
Island  they  went  ashore  and  hunted  the  sea-cow  (Stel- 
ler's  manatee)  and  salted  down  its  beef-like  flesh.  When 
fully  supplied  they  pushed  on  to  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

There  had  long  been  traditions  among  the  Kamchatkans 
of  islands  off  the  Aliutorsk  Cape ;  referring  probably  to  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  Diomedes.  These  were  known  collo- 
quially as  the  Aliutorski  Islands.  When  Bering  discov- 
ered the  archipelago  it  was  concluded  that  these  were  the 
islands  of  the  tradition,  and  so  the  name  of  a  Kamchatkan 
cape  became  fixed  upon  a  region  and  people  in  no  other 
way  connected  with  it. 

The  Sibiriaks  did  not  trouble  themselves  to  buy  furs 
from  the  natives.  Their  firearms,  though  few  and  archaic, 
were  an  argument  which  proved  conclusive  in  any  con- 
troversy with  a  people  armed  only  with  bone-headed 
hand-lances.  On  arriving  at  a  native  settlement  the 
people  were  corralled,  their  furs,  if  any,  taken  as  <  tribute/ 
the  young  girls  captured  as  i  hostages,'  and  the  old  people 
sent  out  to  hunt,  bring  driftwood,  or  catch  fish  for  the 
invaders.  Resistance  was  useless,  though  frequently  at- 
tempted, and  was  punished  by  massacres  which  thoroughly 


GOVERNMENT     SURVEYS  189 

terrorized  the  survivors.  Within  the  memory  of  living 
men,  the  Aleutian  mother  quieted  her  fretful  child  by 
calling  on  GlottofT  and  Drusenin,  who  were  of  those  who 
reigned  in  this  hell  they  had  created.  As  one  island  after 
another  was  depleted  of  its  furs,  succeeding  parties  pushed 
further  and  further  eastward. 

In  1763  parties  reached  Kadiak  and  the  peninsula  of 
Alaska.  Here  a  more  vigorous  and  courageous  people, 
true  Eskimo,  replace  the  Aleuts.  Accustomed  to  meet 
and  conquer  the  mighty  bears  of  the  island,  these  people 
resisted  enslavement  and  slew  many  of  their  persecutors. 
Moreover  many  of  the  Aleuts  arose  in  desperation,  happy 
if  in  dying  they  could  carry  with  them  even  one  of  their 
tyrants.  Many  committed  suicide;  the  population  was 
becoming  scanty;  the  bands  of  Sibiriaks,  too  numerous  to 
be  easily  fed  from  the  resources  of  the  country,  or  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  diminishing  store  of  skins,  turned  their 
arms  sometimes  upon  each  other.  About  this  time  the  gov- 
ernment began  to  send  out  officers  to  survey  the  new  pos- 
sessions and  incidentally  to  establish  order  and  secure  the 
imperial  tribute.  Among  others  Krenitzin  and  LevasherT, 
two  naval  captains,  after  whom  Captains  Bay,  Unalaska, 
is  named,  wintered  there  in  1768.  They  made  the  first 
charts  of  the  archipelago  and  returned  to  Okhotsk  in  1769. 

Somewhat  checked  by  the  presence  of  officials  and  the 
other  difficulties  of  the  situation,  the  fur-traders  began  to 
combine  in  companies  and  to  systematize  the  business. 
Several  corporations  were  formed  which  soon  began  to 
clash  with  each  other.  Still,  the  climax  of  the  saturnalia 
had  passed  and  the  half-insane  orgies  of  the  first  years 
were  no  longer  repeated. 

The  cream  of  the  fur  trade  had  been  skimmed,  the 
Aleut  nation  diminished  to  a  tenth  of  its  original  num- 
ber. They  were  necessary  to  hunt  the  otter;  it  became 
no  longer  profitable  to  waste  the  male  population. 


190  DALL 

Meanwhile  other  nations  had  become  dimly  aware  of  an 
unoccupied  empire,  rich  in  furs  and  affording  a  market 
for  trade,  on  the  northeast  border  of  the  Great  Ocean. 

Spain,  through  her  representatives  in  Mexico,  made  the 
first  move,  and  Ensign  Juan  Perez  reached  the  latitude  of 
Dixon  Entrance  in  1774.  The  following  year  Bodega  and 
Maurelle  attained  to  the  vicinity  of  Sitka  Sound,  where 
they  saw  and  named  Mount  San  Jacinto,  now  known  as 
Edgecombe.  In  1776  the  immortal  James  Cook  sailed 
from  Plymouth,  England,  for  a  voyage  of  discovery  in  the 
North  Pacific.  On  the  roster  of  his  officers  we  read  the 
well-known  names  of  Clerke,  King,  Bligh  (later  of  the 
Bounty),  Burney,  Gore  (of  Virginia),  John  Ledyard  (of 
Connecticut),  and  Vancouver  (as  midshipman).  During 
the  spring  of  1778  Cook  traced  the  northwest  Ameri- 
can coast  from  Nootka  to  Icy  Cape  and  then  turned  back 
to  meet  his  fate  among  the  islands  of  Hawaii.  Some 
additions  to  the  work  were  made  the  following  year  by 
Clerke  and  Gore,  while  the  Spanish  vessels  under  Arteaga 
and  Bodega  pushed  their  researches  as  far  as  Prince  Wil- 
liam Sound. 

We  owe  to  Cook  the  first  generally  accurate  delinea- 
tion and  positions  of  the  Northwest  coast  as  a  whole,  and 
it  is  surprising  how  near  he  came  to  the  best  modern  re- 
sults obtained  with  far  superior  instruments.  Those  who 
followed  him,  for  many  years,  added  and  elucidated  chiefly 
in  details. 

In  1781  Shelikoff,  GolikofF,  and  other  merchants  of  Si- 
beria formed  a  corporation  for  the  more  effective  manage- 
ment of  their  business,  and  dispatched  vessels  to  the 
Northwest  coast.  The  French  naval  captain  La  Perouse 
with  a  shipful  of  young  noblemen,  who  apparently  dis- 
dained to  trouble  themselves  with  navigation  or  seaman- 
ship, touched  in  1786  on  the  northwest  coast  near  the 
Fairweather  ground,  surveyed  Lituya  Bay  and  lost  two 


MT.  EDGKCUMBE   FROM  BACK   OF  SITKA 


SPANISH    VOYAGES  19! 

boats  and  twenty-one  men  who  carelessly  ventured  into 
the  bore  at  the  narrow  entrance.  About  this  time  inde- 
pendent fur  traders  began  to  visit  the  coast.  James  Hanna 
of  Macao  traded  at  Nootka  in  1785,  and  in  a  few  years 
numbers  of  ships  appeared  from  various  quarters  of  the 
globe.  Some  of  these  men  had  a  liberal  education  and 
made  their  voyages  contribute  to  geographical  and  natural 
science  as  well  as  pecuniary  profit.  Among  the  better 
known  were  Meares,  Portlock,  Dixon,  Berkeley,  and  Cox, 
all  Englishmen;  Ingraham,  Gray,  Sturgis,  Kendrick,  and 
Cleveland  from  New  England. 

The  Spanish  authorities  claimed  the  sole  right  to  navi- 
gate the  waters  of  the  Northwest  coast  though  they  had 
never  utilized  any  of  its  resources.  To  drive  away  the 
1  Boston '  and  *  King  George '  men,  as  the  Yankees  and 
Englishmen  were  called  in  the  trade  jargon,  they  sent,  in 
1788,  some  armed  vessels,  under  Martinez  and  Haro,  on  a 
voyage  of  reconnaissance.  These  extended  their  investi- 
gations as  far  as  Kadiak  and  Unalaska  before  returning  to 
California.  The  following  May  the  same  officers  pro- 
ceeded to  Nootka  where  they  took  possession  in  the 
name  of  Spain,  built  a  small  fort,  and  seized  three  British 
vessels  under  Colnett  and  Hudson  which  had  been  sent 
from  Macao  by  Meares.  The  American  vessels  were  not 
molested,  and  Gray,  in  the  Columbia,  after  various  explor- 
ations sailed  for  Canton,  where  he  exchanged  his  furs  for 
tea,  with  which  he  reached  Boston,  August  10,  1790,  hav- 
ing carried  the  United  States  flag  around  the  world  for  the 
first  time. 

The  action  of  the  Spaniards  in  seizing  the  British  ves- 
sels did  more  for  the  exploration  of  the  coast  than  all  their 
surveying  expeditions.  The  British  government  protested 
against  the  proceeding  and,  with  the  acquiescence  of 
Spain,  George  Vancouver  was  sent  to  the  Northwest  coast 
to  determine  with  the  aid  of  a  Spanish  Commissioner  what 


192 


BALL 


indemnity  was  due  the  parties.  He  was  also  instructed 
to  survey  the  coast  from  the  35th  to  the  6oth  parallel  of 
north  latitude  so  as  to  set  at  rest  finally  the  theories  which 
claimed,  somewhere  in  this  region,  the  existence  of  a 
1  northeast  passage  ' —  a  waterway  leading  eastward  to 
Hudson  Bay.  On  his  way  north  he  missed  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia  River,  of  whose  existence  he  was  later  in- 
formed by  Gray.  This  omission  may  have  served  to  put 
him  on  his  mettle  ;  at  all  events  the  surveys  which  he 
conducted  during  1792-4,  were  worthy  of  the  best  ex- 
plorer of  his  time.  No  other  man  has  given  to  the  world 
a  detailed  survey  of  equal  excellence  of  so  many  miles  of 
intricate  coast,  and  under  analogous  conditions.  Van- 
couver died,  worn  out  by  his  exposure  and  heroic  exer- 
tions, just  as  his  report  was  coming  from  the  press.  His 
last  days  were  saddened  by  the  insults  of  a  ruffian  of  the 
nobility,  Lord  Camelford,  who  had  been  discharged  from 
the  expedition  for  bad  conduct  before  the  Pacific  was 
reached.  The  only  memorial  in  England  dedicated  to 
Vancouver  is  a  tablet  erected  by  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany in  the  little  parish  church  of  Ham,  near  Richmond, 
where  he  lies  buried. 

During  these  years  Shelikoff  and  Baranoff  had  received 
from  the  empire  exclusive  trading  privileges  in  the  Rus- 
sian possessions.  Several  Russian  expeditions  had  visited 
the  coast  under  SarychefF,  Billings,  and  Hall.  By  1794  the 
cries  of  the  unfortunate  Aleut  reached  even  to  St.  Peters- 
burg and  the  Emperor  Paul  contemplated  withdrawing 
the  corporate  franchises  which  had  been  so  fearfully 
abused.  Some  Russian  missionaries  had  been  sent  out, 
but  the  natives,  except  when  terrorized,  did  not  receive 
them  very  cordially,  naturally  fearing  '  the  Greeks  bear- 
ing gifts.' 

In  1799  the  Emperor  Paul  granted  a  charter  for  the 
term  of  twenty  years  to  a  new  company  which  was  to 


RUSSIAN-AMERICAN    COMPANY 

enjoy  exclusive  rights.  Under  the  name  of  the  Russian- 
American  Company  the  new  organization  was  required  to 
organize  settlements,  promote  agriculture,  commerce,  dis- 
covery, and  the  propagation  of  the  Greek  Catholic  faith, 
and  to  extend  Russian  influence  and  territory  on  the 
Pacific  so  far  as  it  might  be  done  without  trespassing  on 
the  territory  of  any  foreign  power.  The  government  of 
the  colonies  was  confided  to  the  Chief  Director,  who  re- 
sided at  Kadiak.  No  appeal  could  be  made  from  him  ex- 
cept to  the  Directory  at  Irkutsk  which  settled  all  regula- 
tions and  appointments  and  decided  all  questions  which 
might  be  raised,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Imperial 
Department  of  Commerce.  Outside  of  Kadiak  other  dis- 


THK  FIRST  RULER  OF  RUSSIAN  AMERICA. 

Alexander  Andreivich  Baranoff,  administrator  of  the  Russian  colonies  in  America,  1793-1817 ; 
died  at  Batavia,  April  28,  1819. 

tricts  were  ruled  by  inferior  agents  chosen  from  among 
the  employes  and  accountable  only  to  the  Chief  Director. 


i94 


BALL 


The  general  regulations  were  just  and  humane,  but  the 
enforcement  of  them  was  entrusted  to  men  with  whom 
justice  was  always  subservient  to  expediency.  Baranoff 
maintained  for  twenty  years  an  absolute  and  despotic  sway 
over  the  colonies.  The  orders  of  the  Directory  were  often 
unheeded  by  him  and  it  was  almost  as  easy  for  complaints 
to  reach  the  Directory  from  another  planet  as  from  Rus- 
sian America.  He  was  a  man  of  iron  energy  and  nerve, 
coarse,  unfeeling,  shrewd,  and  enterprising.  Among  his 
subordinates  were  men  far  more  intelligent  and  humane 
than  himself,  but  any  improvements  were  proposed  in  vain 
if  in  his  judgment  they  conflicted  with  the  interests  of  the 
company.  Krusenstern,  one  of  the  Russian  naval  officers, 
remarks  of  the  servants  of  the  Company, "  none  but  vaga- 
bonds and  adventurers  ever  entered  the  Company's  ser- 
vice as  traders;  it  was  their  invariable  destiny  to  pass  a 
life  of  wretchedness  in  America;  and  few  had  the  good 
fortune  to  touch  Russian  soil  again."  Naturally  most  of 
the  personnel  of  the  service  in  the  colonies  was  drawn 
from  the  ranks  of  those  who  had  served  in  the  Shelikoff 
and  other  companies,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  change  of 
masters  made  any  perceptible  difference  to  the  Aleuts  or 
other  natives  under  the  control  of  the  Russians.  How- 
ever, more  business-like  methods  were  introduced  in  the 
general  conduct  of  affairs;  among  the  new  officers  of  the 
Company  were  some  men  of  intelligence,  refinement,  and 
kindly  nature,  as  well  as  of  scientific  acquirements. 
Though  the  Aleuts  were  treated  as  serfs  of  the  Company 
they  were  entitled  to  a  certain  amount  of  subsistence,  and 
the  absence  of  competition  took  away  many  of  the  pre- 
vious grounds  for  friction. 

The  official  interest  in  the  Company  grew  as  explora- 
tions by  Russian  naval  officers  increased.  In  1800  the 
chief  officers  were  moved  from  Irkutsk  to  St.  Petersburg. 
Two  years  later  the  Emperor,  Empress,  and  Grand  Duke 


DESTRUCTION    OF    SITKA  195 

Constantine  became  shareholders  in  the  corporation,  and 
the  Loan  Bank  of  St.  Petersburg  was  directed  to  loan 
250,000  silver  rubles  to  the  Company  at  eight  percent. 
As  the  operations  of  the  Company  became  more  wide- 
spread, their  vessels  commanded  by  Russian  naval  officers 
constantly  explored  new  portions  of  the  coast.  The  trad- 
ing post  established  at  Old  Harbor,  Sitka  Sound,  by  Bar- 
anoff  in  1799  did  a  good  business,  and  in  the  spring  of 
1800  Baranoff  formally  took  possession  in  the  name  of 
Russia  of  the  region  now  comprised  in  southeastern 
Alaska.  In  contrast  with  the  relatively  mild  native  of  Es- 
kimo stock  with  whom  the  Russian  had  dealt  to  the  west- 
ward, the  pugnacious  and  turbulent  Tlinkit  of  the  Sitkan 
Archipelago  kept  the  settlers  and  traders  constantly  on  the 
defensive.  In  May,  1802,  the  Sitkan  natives  attacked  the 
Russian  post  and  massacred  the  entire  party  excepting  a 
few  who  took  to  the  woods  and  were  rescued  by  Barbour, 
the  master  of  a  British  trader.  Attacks  were  also  made 
on  Russian  hunting  parties  in  various  parts  of  the  Archi- 
pelago. During  the  same  year  the  Stikine  River  was 
discovered  by  the  American  ship  Atahualpa  of  Boston. 

An  expedition  under  Krusenstern  and  Lisianski  in  the 
ships  Nadeshda  and  Neva  sailed  for  the  colonies  in  Au- 
gust, 1803.  The  colonial  officials  pushed  their  explora- 
tions some  distance  up  the  Copper  River  and  sent  hunting 
and  trading  parties  to  Oregon  and  California. 

In  1804  Lisianski  in  the  Neva  joined  Baranoff  before 
Sitka,  where  the  native  stronghold  was  defended  energet- 
ically against  the  Russian  cannon.  It  was  evacuated  by 
the  Tlinkit  when  their  ammunition  was  exhausted  and 
the  Russians  immediately  laid  the  foundation  of  a  fortified 
post  on  the  very  defensible  peninsula  which  had  been  oc- 
cupied by  the  natives.  As  the  Archangel  Gabriel,  to 
whom  the  post  at  Old  Harbor  had  been  dedicated,  had 
not  protected  it  against  the  heathen,  the  new  post  was  de- 


196  DALL 

voted  to  the  Archangel  Michael  in  hope  of  better  results, 
whence  it  was  commonly  called  New  Archangel,  a  name 
which  has  now  given  place  to  Sitka,  from  the  native  des- 
ignation of  the  bay  upon  which  it  is  situated. 

For  some  years  the  progress  of  discovery  and  trade  was 
slow,  though  not  unimportant.  In  1816-1817  Kotzebue 
was  engaged  in  the  work  of  exploration  in  the  Aleutians 
and  northward.  In  August,  1816,  he  entered  the  Arctic 
Ocean  and  explored  the  sound  which  bears  his  name.  In 

1818  the  eastern  shores  of  Bering  Sea,  especially  Bristol 
Bay,  were  explored   by  Korsakoff  and  Kolmakoff.     In 

1819  an  expedition  for  geographical  discovery  was  fitted 
out  at  St.  Petersburg  under  VasilierT  and  Bellingshausen. 
Baranoff,  returning  to  Russia,  died  at  Batavia  April  z8th, 
being  about  eighty  years  old,  and  leaving,  in  spite  of  his 
active  career  and  exceptional  opportunities,  no  fortune. 
His   death  made    practicable  the  more   exact   fixing  of 
responsibility  for  colonial  matters,  and  numerous  much 
needed  reforms  were  carried  out  in  the  subsequent  ad- 
ministration of  the  Company's  business. 

At  this  time  the  Russians  had  settlements  or  fortified 
trading  posts  in  California,  Sitka  Sound,  Prince  William 
Sound,  Cook  Inlet,  Kadiak,  five  of  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
the  Pribilof  Islands,  and  Nushagak  in  Bristol  Bay. 

A  convention  between  Russia  and  the  United  States 
relative  to  boundaries,  privileges  for  hunting  and  fishing, 
and  regulations  governing  trade,  was  signed  at  St.  Peters- 
burg April  17,  1824.  A  less  conspicuous  event  which 
had  for  a  large  part  of  the  Territory  even  more  impor- 
tant consequences  was  the  arrival  in  the  Colonies  of 
Father  Innokenti  Veniaminoff,  who  had  been  sent  as  a 
missionary  priest  to  Unalaska.  It  is  one  of  the  mysteries 
of  the  human  mind  how  a  religion  brought  by  men  guilty 
of  every  infamy  could  be  accepted  by  their  victims ;  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  reasoning,  if  any,  indulged  in  by 


VENIAMINOFF 


I97 


conforming  Aleuts  was  that  a  religion  and  a  God  which 
could  save  from  eternal  torment  such  men  as  GlottofF  and 
Solovioff,  must  be  remarkably  efficacious  and  powerful. 


THE  APOSTLE  TO  THE  ALEUTS. 

Ivan  Veniaminoff,  in  religion  Innokenti,  born  September  i,  1797,  missionary  to  the  Aleuts 
1823-33,  to  the  Tlinkit  1834-40,  Bishop  of  Kamchatka  1841-67,  Metropolitan  of  Moscow  1867-79, 
died  April  aa,  1879. 

However  this  may  be,  in  Veniaminoff  came  a  man  who 
dealt  justly  and  loved  mercy;  a  man  rilled  with  the  ra- 
diant spirit  of  a  savior  of  men.  He  made  himself  one 
with  his  people,  loving  and  beloved.  Nor  did  he  rest 
satisfied  with  spiritual  ministrations.  He  learned  their 
language,  studied  with  affectionate  comprehension  their 
manners  and  customs,  recorded  the  climatic  and  physical 
conditions  under  which  they  lived,  and  in  his  *  Notes  on 


198  BALL 

the  Unalaska  District '  has  built  the  only  existing  founda- 
tion for  the  anthropology  of  the  people  he  served  so  well. 
For  seven  years  he  worked  among  them  and  his  memory 
is  still  dear  in  the  land. 

In  1825  a  convention  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia 
was  signed,  by  which  the  boundaries  of  Russian  territory 
were  established,  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  definitely  ex- 
cluded from  every  part  of  the  seacoast  north  of  Lat.  54° 
40',  and  the  unknown  territory  north  of  the  St.  Elias  Alps 
equitably  divided  by  an  astronomical  line,  the  I4ist 
meridian  west  from  Greenwich. 

The  interest  in  Arctic  exploration  which  had  been  in- 
strumental in  promoting  the  voyages  of  Ross,  Franklin, 
Parry,  Richardson,  and  Back  on  the  northeastern  shores 
of  America  now  instigated  cooperative  explorations  in  the 
North  Pacific.  This  work  began  with  the  work  of 
Beechey  in  H.  M.  S.  Blossom,  which  sailed  from  England 
in  1825.  The  following  year  one  of  the  most  fruitful  of 
Russian  scientific  expeditions  to  America  sailed  from  St. 
Petersburg  in  the  corvette  Seniavine,  commanded  by 
Liitke,  who  was  assisted  by  the  naturalists  Kittlitz,  Post- 
els,  and  Mertens.  Beechey  pushed  northward  as  far  as 
the  ice  would  admit  his  vessel  and  sent  a  boat  party, 
under  Elson,  which  reached  and  named  Point  Barrow,  the 
most  northern  extreme  of  Alaska.  During  the  same  sum- 
mer Franklin,  pushing  westward  from  the  Mackenzie, 
reached  Return  Reef,  the  most  western  point  of  his  ex- 
plorations, on  the  Arctic  coast. 

The  Company's  officers  continued  their  surveys  in  1832, 
established  Fort  KolmakofF  on  the  Kuskokwim  River, 
and  a  year  later  TebenkofF  built  Redoubt  St.  Michael  on 
Norton  Sound.  In  1835  a  meteorological  and  magnetic 
observatory  was  established  at  Sitka,  where  for  many 
years  a  first  class  series  of  observations  was  kept  up.  In 
1835  the  delta  of  the  Yukon  and  Kuskokwim  was  explored 


WHALE    FISHERIES  199 

by  Glasunoff,  and  the  Yukon  was  ascended  as  far  as 
Anvik.  In  1837  Dease  and  Simpson  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  completed  the  survey  of  the  Arctic  coast  be- 
tween Franklin's  Return  Reef  and  Point  Barrow;  and  Sir 
Edward  Belcher  in  H.M.S.  Sulphur  made  various  ex- 
plorations between  Sitka  and  Kadiak.  In  1838  the 
trading  post  at  Nulato  was  established  on  the  Yukon  by 
Malakoff.  Evacuated  during  the  winter,  it  was  burned  by 
the  natives,  but  reestablished  in  1841  by  Derabin  who  re- 
mained in  command.  In  the  course  of  1842-1843,  the 
Yukon  as  far  up  as  Nowikakat  was  examined  and  mapped 
by  Zagoskin.  In  1847  McMurray  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company  coming  from  the  Mackenzie,  descended  the 
Porcupine  River  and  built  Fort  Yukon  near  its  junction 
with  the  Yukon  River. 

In  1848  the  Franklin  search  expeditions  were  sent  out, 
inaugurating  the  most  active  period  of  exploration  of  the 
polar  regions.  The  Herald  and  Plover  were  sent  to 
Bering  Strait  to  cooperate  with  parties  working  from  the 
eastward.  During  this  summer  the  first  American  whaler 
to  venture  through  Bering  Strait,  the  ship  Superior,  Captain 
Roys,  was  rewarded  by  a  successful  catch  in  a  very  short 
time.  The  report  of  his  success  spreading,  he  was  fol- 
lowed in  1849  by  a  fleet  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-four 
American  whalers,  and  the  fishery  was  thus  permanently 
established  north  of  the  Strait. 

During  the  summer  of  1849  the  Herald  and  Plover,  as- 
sisted by  the  private  yacht  Nancy  Dawson,  explored  the 
Polar  Sea  north  of  Bering  Strait,  landed  on  Herald  Island 
and  probably  had  a  glimpse  of  Wrangell  Land.  A  boat 
expedition  under  Robert  Pullen  reached  the  Mackenzie 
River  from  Point  Barrow,  ascended  to  Fort  Macpherson 
and  returned  home  by  way  of  York  Factory  and  Hudson 
Bay,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  journeys  on  record  for 
this  region.  In  1850  the  Franklin  search  was  energetically 


2OO 


DALL 


continued  by  McClure  and  Collinson  who  sent  Lieutenant 
Barnard  up  the  Yukon  to  Nulato  in  search  of  information, 
while  Bedford  Pirn  explored  between  Norton  and  Kot- 


1  (  <. 

POLAR  EXPLORER  AND  RUSSIAN  GOVERNOR. 

Admiral  Baron  Ferdinand  Petrovich  von  Wrangell,  reformer  and  administrator  of  the  Rus- 
sian American  colonies,  iteg-iStf.    Born  December  29,  1794.    Died  May  25, 1870. 

zebue  Sounds  and  Grantley  Harbor.  Barnard  perished 
in  an  attack  on  Nulato  by  the  Koyukun  Indians.  During 
the  next  four  years  Arctic  exploration  and  the  search  for 
Franklin  were  carried  on  by  the  officers  above  mentioned, 
and  by  Kellett,  Maguire,  and  Trollope. 

In  1854  the  Ringgold  and  Rodgers  exploring  expedition 
made  valuable  surveys  in  the  Aleutian  Islands  and  the 
vicinity  of  Bering  Strait.  In  1860-1861  Robert  Kenni- 
cott,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  coming  from  Hudson 
Bay  by  way  of  Fort  Yukon,  descended  the  Yukon  to  the 


TELEGRAPH    SURVEYS  2OI 

Small  Houses.  In  1863  Strachan  Jones,  commanding  at 
Fort  Yukon,  descended  the  Yukon  to  Nowikakat.  This 
point  had  been  reached  by  Zagoskin,  ten  years  earlier, 
from  the  sea;  but  neither  the  Russians  nor  the  Hudson 
Bay  men  appear  to  have  been  aware  of  the  work  of  the 
rival  party.  Hearing  now  of  the  presence  of  the  Eng- 
lish, the  Russian  commander  at  Nulato  sent  Ivan  Lukeen, 
a  half  breed,  with  a  party  of  Indians,  up  the  river  to  gather 
information.  This  party  reached  Fort  Yukon  where  they 
traded  and  returned  to  St.  Michael. 

The  successive  failures  of  several  Atlantic  cables  to 
work  for  any  length  of  time,  had  disposed  many  telegraph 
men  to  believe  that  no  permanently  working  cable  of  that 
length  could  be  expected.  This  led  to  a  plan  for  an  in- 
ternational telegraph  overland  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Amur  River  in  Siberia  to  Bering  Strait,  crossing  by  a 
short  cable,  and  thence  again  overland  up  the  valley  of  the 
Yukon  and  through  British  Columbia  to  civilization.  The 
cooperation  of  the  Russian  government  was  secured  and 
the  command  of  an  expedition  to  make  the  necessary  ex- 
plorations was  entrusted  by  the  Western  Union  Telegraph 
Company  to  Capt.  Charles  S.  Bulkley.  This  expedition 
was  organized  in  San  Francisco  in  1865,  and  included  a 
number  of  scientific  men  under  Robert  Kennicott,  selected 
through  the  good  offices  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

Through  their  explorations  it  was  first  made  known  to 
the  world  that  the  Yukon  of  the  English  and  the  Kwik- 
pak  of  the  Russian  maps  were  one  and  the  same  great 
river,  which  was  first  mapped  with  approximate  accuracy 
from  their  rough  surveys. 

Kennicott  died  during  the  spring  of  1866,  but  Frank 
Ketchum  and  Michael  Lebarge  carried  out  his  plans  and 
ascended  the  Yukon  to  Fort  Yukon.  Kennicott  was  suc- 
ceeded in  charge  of  the  scientific  corps  of  the  expedition  by 
William  H.  Dall,  who  with  Frederick  Whymper  in  1867 


202 


DALL 


ascended  and  mapped  the  Yukon  to  Fort  Yukon  and  the 
boundary,  while  Ketchum  pushed  on  in  birch  canoes  to  the 
site  of  old  Fort  Selkirk,  both  returning  together  to  the  sea. 


FIRST    AMERICAN    EXPLORER   OF    THE    YUKON. 

Robert  Kennicott,  naturalist,  born  November  13,  1835,  died  at  Nulato,  on  the  Yukon  River, 
May  13,  1866. 

Space  fails  to  enumerate  the  details  of  the  surveying 
and  scientific  research  which  were  carried  on  by  this  ex- 
pedition or  resulted  indirectly  from  its  work,1  but  there 
is  little  doubt  that  the  acquisition  of  Alaska  by  the  United 
States  was  largely  due  to  the  information  brought  back 
by  the  telegraph  explorers. 

1  An  account  and  bibliography  of  this  subject  is  to  be  found  in  the  Bulle- 
tin of  the  Philosophical  Society  of  Washington,  XIII.,  pp.  123-162,  December, 
1895. 


< 


V       . 

\ 


ALASKA    PURCHASE  203 

In  1867,  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company,  find- 
ing the  Atlantic  Cable  at  last  a  success,  withdrew  its  part- 
ies from  Alaska.  About  the  time  many  of  the  members 
of  the  expedition  had  returned  to  the  eastern  United  States 
the  question  of  the  purchase  of  the  Territory  was  being  dis- 
cussed, and  the  favorable  decision  finally  arrived  at  was, 
with  little  doubt,  largely  due  to  the  information  at  first 
hand  these  gentlemen  furnished  to  those  considering  the 
subject. 

On  the  1 8th  of  October,  1867,  the  Russian  authorities 
formally  surrendered  the  Territory  to  General  L.  H.  Rous- 
seau, U.  S.  A.,  acting  for  the  United  States  at  Sitka. 
Previous  to  this  time,  since  the  expiration  of  the  charter 
of  the  Russian-American  Company  in  1862,  its  business 
had  been  carried  on  under  the  general  supervision  of  an 
Imperial  governor.  That  the  charter  was  not  renewed 
was  directly  due  to  the  exposure  of  abuses  which  existed 
in  the  management  and  had  been  more  or  less  character- 
istic of  the  conditions  in  the  Territory  since  the  beginning 
of  the  century.  Nor  was  the  transfer  to  the  custody  of 
the  Republic  to  work  an  immediate  cure.  A  history  of 
conditions  in  Alaska  from  1867  to  1897  is  yet  to  be  written, 
and  when  written  few  Americans  will  be  able  to  read  it 
without  indignation.  A  country  of  which  it  could  be  said 
with  little  exaggeration  that 

"  Never  a  law  of  God  nor  man 
Runs  north  of  fifty-five." 

A  country  where  no  man  could  make  a  legal  will,  own  a 
homestead  or  transfer  it,  or  so  much  as  cut  wood  for  his 
fire  without  defying  a  Congressional  prohibition;  where 
polygamy  and  slavery  and  the  lynching  of  witches  pre- 
vailed, with  no  legal  authority  to  stay  or  punish  criminals; 
such  in  great  part  has  Alaska  been  for  thirty  years.  The 
waning  of  the  fur  trade  and  the  increase  in  population  due 


204  DALL 

to  the  discovery  of  gold  have  forced  attention  to  the 
needs  of  the  region,  and  the  future  is  not,  as  the  past 
seemed  to  be,  without  hope  for  better  government.  It 
will  be  a  perpetual  testimony  to  the  character  of  the  early 
American  settlers  in  Alaska,  that  under  the  circumstances 
in  which  they  found  themselves  they  bore  themselves  so 
well. 

It  would  require  a  row  of  stately  volumes  to  contain  an 
adequate  account  of  the  explorations  and  surveys  made 
since  the  transfer  by  the  Coast  Survey,  the  Geological 
Survey,  and  officers  of  the  Navy,  the  Revenue  Marine, 
and  the  Army.  The  amount  done  is  marvelous,  yet 
hardly  known  to  the  public.  To  one  conversant  with  the 
facts,  one  of  the  most  amusing  things  in  current  litera- 
ture is  the  placid  innocence  of  many  a  casual  traveler 
or  gold  hunter,  who  pours  out  his  tale  of  experiences  in 
the  confident  belief  that  nothing  of  the  kind  is  on  record. 
A  bibliography,  far  from  complete,  yet  with  fully  4,000 
titles,  does  not  cover  the  publications  in  books  and  serials 
upon  the  Territory  and  its  adjacent  regions. 

It  is  true  that  of  satisfactory  and  reliable  books  on  the 
general  subject  there  is  an  obvious  dearth.  This,  how- 
ever, cannot  long  be  the  case.  That  all  the  virgin  terri- 
tory has  been  reached  is  far  from  true,  and  there  still  re- 
mains a  good  opportunity  in  many  parts  of  Alaska  for  the 
work  of  the  careful  and  energetic  anthropologist  or  geog- 
rapher. 

The  work  of  the  Harriman  Expedition,  in  spite  of  the 
extremely  limited  time  available  at  any  one  locality,  shows 
how  large  a  field  there  is  as  yet  untilled.  While  the 
sublime  scenery  of  the  southern  coast  will  long  be  the 
goal  of  tourists,  we  may  confidently  anticipate  for  years  to 
come  a  rich  harvest  for  the  scientific  explorers  and  natu- 
ralists whose  good  fortune  may  lead  them  to  the  fascinat- 
ing study  of  the  virgin  North. 


DAYS  AMONG  ALASKA  BIRDS 

BT  CHARLES   KEELER 


HERE  was  to  me  a  peculiar  interest  in  the 
birds  seen  during  our  memorable  voyage  along 
the  Alaska  coast,  in  that  most  of  them  were 
old  friends,  known  through  many  a  California 
winter.  I  was  now  to  be  taken  into  the  pri- 
vacy of  their  homes  and  to  make  their  acquaintance  at  the 
brief  period  when  all  the  best  and  sweetest  scenes  of  their 
lives  are  enacted.  Many  of  them  are  silent,  for  the  most 
part,  during  their  winter  visits,  and  only  on  the  Alaska 
shores  are  their  songs  to  be  heard.  Others,  which  sing 
about  my  garden  in  midwinter,  were  uttering  the  same 
familiar  strains  in  this  region  of  enchanting  grandeur. 
There  were  also  strangers  of  rare  interest  among  them — 
inhabitants  of  Arctic  tundras  and  the  storm-swept  rocks 
of  Bering  Sea. 

During  the  early  days  of  the  voyage  the  ornithologists 
of  the  party  were  sadly  disappointed  on  account  of  the 
scarcity  of  bird  life.  We  sailed  by  mile  upon  mile  of 
forest  land  with  inviting  shore  lines,  where  streams  of 
water  tumbled  and  roared  down  the  mountain  sides,  but 
upon  landing  the  forest  presented  a  harsh  and  inhospitable 
barrier  of  devil's  club,  swampy  thickets,  and  great  fallen 
tree  trunks  overgrown  with  rank  vegetation.  On  forcing 

(205) 


206  KEELER 

our  way  into  these  forest  retreats  we  found  but  little  indi- 
cation of  the  presence  of  animal  life.  Silence  reigned, 
broken  now  and  then  by  the  squeak  of  a  Harris's  wood- 
pecker or  the  short  fine  note  of  the  pileolated  warbler. 
This  frail,  beautiful  little  creature  with  its  fine  golden 
plumage  and  black  cap,  its  dainty  manners  and  sprightly 
song,  was  one  of  the  few  birds  found  in  considerable 
numbers  in  the  forests  of  the  southern  portions  of  the  in- 
land passages. 

The  northwest  crows  and  the  ravens  forced  themselves 
upon  our  attention  from  the  outset.  We  are  accustomed 
to  think  of  ravens  as  shy  birds,  dwelling  in  remote  and 
desolate  places,  upon  the  wastes  of  the  plains,  or  on 
dreary  rock-bound  sea  coasts,  but  at  every  village  in 
Alaska  they  are  as  abundant  and  tame  as  chickens  in  a 
farmyard.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  raven  has  been  a  bird 
held  in  superstitious  reverence  or  fear  among  men  of 
many  races  and  in  various  parts  of  the  world  —  that  it 
has  been  a  theme  for  poets  and  a  study  for  scientists  as 
well  as  a  sacred  being  among  the  Tlinkit  Indians.  In 
appearance  it  is  wiser  than  an  owl.  It  is  more  full  of 
strange  antics  than  a  parrot  and  quite  as  talkative  in  its 
own  peculiar  vernacular. 

It  is  well  that  it  is  held  in  veneration  by  the  Indians  and 
in  contempt  by  the  whites,  for  the  untidy  habits  of  the  peo- 
ple make  these  scavengers  quite  indispensable.  There  is 
something  inexpressibly  droll  and  quaint  about  the  sidling 
hops  and  curious  prancing  walk  of  these  big,  lustrous  black 
fellows,  with  their  sharp  eyes  and  strong,  black  beaks  ; 
they  turn  their  heads  on  one  side  in  such  a  knowing  fashion 
when  they  look  at  any  strange  object,  and  their  cries  are 
so  expressive  of  their  varied  emotions.  Their  typical  call 
is  a  deep,  guttural,  rattling  croak,  not  wholly  unmusical, 
although  loud  and  wild.  I  wrote  down  some  of  the  calls 
they  uttered,  indicating  as  well  as  possible  in  letters  the 


EAGLES    AND    HUMMINGBIRDS  207 

effect  of  their  tones,  ^uadk!  quaakl  an  old  fellow 
would  call  from  the  top  of  a  Sitka  spruce,  and  then  sud- 
denly change  to  a  low,  deep-voiced  -woop!  —  rolling  it  out 
like  an  Indian  war  whoop.  Again  he  would  vary  the 
note  to  a  milder  yup-quook!  with  a  persuasive,  liquid 
quality  in  his  voice. 

They  spend  much  time  on  the  beaches  where  refuse  is 
plenty,  and  seem  to  lead  happy,  independent  lives  there, 
with  little  to  worry  them  and  much  to  make  merry  over. 
The  raven  is  about  two  feet  long  and  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  crow  not  only  by  its  much  greater  size,  but  also 
by  the  distinct  and  pointed  effect  of  the  feathers  of  the 
throat.  Altogether  I  have  found  them  among  the  most 
entertaining  and  intelligent  birds  I  have  had  the  good 
fortune  to  know. 

Another  conspicuous  and  widely  distributed  bird,  that 
we  encountered  almost  at  the  outset  of  our  voyage  and 
which  was  ever  a  part  of  the  landscape  until  we  entered 
Bering  Sea,  is  the  bald  eagle.  The  adult,  perched  in  the 
top  of  a  spruce  or  hemlock,  its  white  head  contrasting 
with  the  black  of  its  body,  makes  a  striking  picture  and 
seems  peculiarly  in  keeping  with  the  grandeur  of  the 
scenery  and  the  solitude  of  these  wave-washed  shores. 

If  the  eagle  seems  to  belong  to  these  solitudes  of  the 
Northwest,  another  bird,  which  we  found  equally  abundant 
as  far  north  as  Juneau  and  Sitka,  seemed  singularly  out  of 
place.  Indeed,  even  after  reading  that  the  tiny  rufous 
hummingbird  journeyed  so  far  into  the  northern  wilds, 
it  was  with  almost  a  shock  of  surprise  that  we  saw  the 
dainty  creature,  which  we  instinctively  associate  with  the 
tropics,  contentedly  buzzing  about  the  salmon  berries  and 
appearing  as  unconcerned  and  happy  as  if  his  fine  wings 
had  not  carried  him  some  thousands  of  miles  from  his 
winter  quarters  in  southern  California  or  Mexico.  I  can- 
not imagine  a  more  wonderful  instance  of  bird  migration 


208  KEELER 

than  this  —  one  of  the  smallest  known  birds,  no  larger  than 
a  fair  sized  moth,  yet  with  strength,  endurance,  and  in- 
telligence to  travel  up  and  down  the  greater  part  of  the 
North  American  coast  line,  pressing  close  upon  the  train 
of  early  spring,  awaiting  only  the  blooming  of  the  wild 
currant  in  California  and  the  salmon  berry  farther  north, 
to  venture  upon  his  perilous  way!  His  whole  make-up 
is  of  fire.  It  shows  upon  his  burnished  helmet  and  gorget, 
and  flashes  with  every  turn  of  his  alert  head ;  it  appears  in 
the  warm  rufous  of  his  back  and  sides,  and  more  than  all 
else  in  the  daring  spirit  that  can  achieve  such  wonders! 
All  hail  to  thee,  little  pioneer!  You  explored  the  wilder- 
ness centuries  before  the  birth  of  Bering,  Cook,  or  Van- 
couver; you  answered  the  beckoning  blossoms  and  fol- 
lowed them  into  whatever  forest  halls  they  summoned 
you,  even  upon  the  very  threshold  of  the  ice  king's  do- 
main! May  the  two  white  dots  of  eggs  in  thy  felted 
cradle  reward  thy  toil,  and  may  thy  whole  family  of  in- 
trepid nomads  escape  the  dangers  of  their  southward 
journey! 

Steller's  jay  is  one  of  the  characteristic  birds  of  the  for- 
ested coast  regions  of  the  Northwest.  It  is  noisy  and 
showy,  constantly  obtruding  its  presence  wherever  the 
traveler  may  tarry,  although  its  marked  preference  for  the 
vicinity  of  man  was  frequently  noted.  It  is  a  big  crested 
jay  with  sooty  black  head  and  back,  deep  blue-black 
barred  wings  and  tail,  and  a  paler  blue  breast.  He  is  a 
rollicking  fellow  with  a  loud  voice,  saucy  manners,  and 
eminently  social  habits. 

During  our  short  stay  at  Wrangell  we  found  birds  more 
numerous  than  at  any  point  previously  visited.  Species 
that  had  enlivened  the  forest-covered  shores  wherever  we 
had  landed  were  here  in  abundance,  and  in  addition  there 
were  many  well-known  friends  we  had  been  accustomed 
to  associate  with  more  southern  latitudes.  Barn  swallows 


RUFOUS  HUMMINGBIRD,  SELASPHORTJS  RUFUS 


BIRDS    ABOUT   WRANGELL  209 

flitted  about  with  light  agile  turns  and  fine  chattering  cries, 
quite  as  much  at  home  in  this  historic  Alaska  hamlet  as 
they  are  in  the  farmyards  of  Massachusetts  and  the  ranches 
of  California.  A  few  white-breasted  swallows  sported  over 
the  house  tops,  and  the  demure  little  Lincoln's  finch  was 
at  home  in  the  shrubbery.  He  is  a  first  cousin  to  the  song 
sparrow  —  a  commonplace  appearing  bird,  brown  and  gray 
in  color  with  profuse  streakings  above  and  below.  He 
may  be  distinguished  from  his  nearest  relatives  by  the  buff 
ground  color  of  the  breast,  that  of  the  song  sparrows  being 
white.  Here  also  we  caught  our  first  glimpse  of  the 
dwarf  hermit  thrush,  and  heard  the  first  far-away  strains 
of  his  entrancing  song,  but  as  we  afterwards  found  him  in 
far  greater  abundance  and  had  ample  opportunities  of  lis- 
tening to  his  melody,  I  shall  defer  an  account  of  him  to  a 
later  period.  Suffice  it  to  say  now  that  he  is  a  constant 
winter  visitant  of  the  valleys  of  California,  but,  so  far  as 
observation  goes,  he  is  never  betrayed  into  the  faintest 
suggestion  of  a  song  at  that  season  —  only  a  short,  low, 
chuck!  chuck!  as  he  retires  into  the  shadow  of  the 
shrubbery. 

Another  bird,  Townsend's  sparrow,  singularly  like  a 
thrush  in  general  coloration,  although  profoundly  different 
in  structure,  was  first  encountered  at  Wrangell.  In  Cali- 
fornia he  is  abundant  all  winter  long.  He  is  about  the  size 
of  a  thrush,  but  whereas  the  bill  and  feet  of  that  bird  are 
long  and  slender,  those  of  Townsend's  sparrow  are  short 
and  stout.  He  is  a  great  scratcher  and  may  often  be  found 
in  his  quiet  retreats  in  woodland  thickets  by  the  noise  he 
makes  scratching  away  the  leaves  to  get  at  his  food. 

I  saw  a  belted  kingfisher  here,  and  greeted  him  as  an 
old  friend,  for  wherever  one  may  go  in  northern  North 
America,  if  a  stream  of  water  large  enough  to  hold  fish 
flows  through  the  country,  his  big  crested  head  and  dark 
blue  and  white  body  are  to  be  seen. 


210  KEELER 

At  about  nine  o'clock  on  the  evening  of  the  day  we  left 
Wrangell  we  cast  anchor  in  the  beautiful  waters  of  Taku 
Harbor.  Here  Dr.  Merriam  went  ashore  with  a  small 
party  to  put  out  traps  for  mammals,  and  I  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  walk  by  the  stream  and  listen  to  the  enchanting 
song  of  the  russet-backed  thrush.  This  thrush  is  a  com- 
mon summer  resident  of  the  Pacific  Coast  and  is  the  most 
accomplished  song  bird  of  the  region.  It  is  a  trifle  larger 
than  the  dwarf  hermit  thrush  and  its  back  is  uniform  rus- 
set-brown. Both  species  have  a  distinct  ring  of  white  or 
buff  around  the  eye,  and  both  have  the  white  breast  more 
or  less  tinged  with  buff  and  conspicuously  spotted  with 
triangular  dusky-brown  marks. 

Like  birds  of  passage  we  hurried  on.  Gliding  up  the 
wonderful  reaches  of  Lynn  Canal,  past  glaciers  and  tower- 
ing mountain  summits,  we  arrived  at  Skagway,  and  on  the 
following  morning  took  the  train  for  the  summit  of  White 
Pass,  now  so  famous  as  the  highway  to  the  Klondike. 

It  is  not  strange  that  few  birds  choose  so  drear  a  place 
for  their  summer  home.  The  wonder  is  that  any  are  hardy 
enough  to  undertake  the  rearing  of  a  family  there.  It  must 
be  a  blithe  heart  indeed  that  can  sing  all  day  long  with 
thick  fog  overhead,  and  bleak  rocks,  half  buried  in  snow- 
drifts, underfoot;  but  birds  there  were,  singing  their  frail, 
sweet  songs  in  defiance  of  the  rudeness  of  nature.  We 
observed  three  species,  two  of  which  spend  their  winters 
in  the  valleys  of  California  —  the  golden-crowned  sparrow 
and  the  American  pipit  or  titlark  —  while  the  third,  Hep- 
burn's leucosticte,  scorns  to  haunt  the  valleys  at  any  sea- 
son, but  follows  the  margin  of  the  snow,  year  in,  year  out. 

The  golden-crowned  sparrow  arrested  the  attention  of 
our  entire  party,  not  only  at  White  Pass  but  at  other  points 
where  it  was  found  in  great  numbers.  To  me  it  was  an  old 
friend,  for  throughout  the  winter  it  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  of  California  valley  birds,  but  to  those  of  the 


GOLDEN-  CROWNED    SPARROW,  ZONOTRICHIA  COROKATA 
White  Pass,    Jtui.e  7,  1899.    Male 


BIRDS    OF    WHITE    PASS  211 

party  who  came  from  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  it  was 
a  stranger,  although  first  cousin  of  two  common  eastern 
species  —  the  white-throated  and  the  white-crowned  spar- 
rows. Its  typical  song,  though  neither  vivacious  nor  va- 
ried, is  so  plaintively  appealing  as  to  win  an  audience 
where  other  birds  may  chant  their  strains  to  deaf  ears. 
It  is  high  and  pensive,  descending  in  a  fine,  liquid  cadence 
of  three  lingering  notes.  Some  of  our  party,  listening  to 
its  song  at  Kadiak,  fancied  that  the  second  note  was 
broken  by  a  short  halt,  but  after  hearing  it  for  many  years 
during  the  winter  time,  and  again  in  its  Alaska  home,  its 
characteristic  strain  seems  to  me  to  consist  of  three  notes 
in  a  descending  scale,  often  more  or  less  slurred. 

At  White  Pass  I  was  not  a  little  surprised  to  notice  that 
its  song,  although  precisely  the  same  in  quality  as  during 
the  winter  time,  had  a  different  sequence  of  the  notes,  the 
highest  tone  being  sounded  first,  followed  by  the  lowest, 
and  lastly  by  the  medium  tone.  I  supposed  at  the  time 
that  its  summer  song  differed  in  this  respect  from  its  winter 
strain,  but  at  other  points  in  Alaska  we  heard  the  well- 
known  song  of  its  winter  pilgrimages. 

Some  wag  on  the  White  Pass  railroad  has  christened 
this  bird  '  Weary  Willie '  because  he  is  forever  singing 
"  I'm  so  tired! "  As  to  the  singer —  he  is  a  simple  sparrow 
of  medium  size,  with  a  back  of  streaked  brown,  chestnut, 
and  black,  an  ashy  rump,  and  a  plain  ashy-gray  breast, 
turning  to  olive-brown  on  the  sides.  His  distinctive  mark 
is  his  golden  crown,  changing  to  ashy-white  on  the  back 
of  his  head  and  bordered  with  bands  of  black. 

Of  the  pipit  and  leucosticte  we  shall  see  more  anon,  so 
we  can  now  leave  them  flitting  about  the  snowy  summits 
of  White  Pass,  while  we  hurry  on  our  way  down  the 
mountains  by  train  to  Skagway,  and  by  steamer  once 
more  through  the  wonderful  Lynn  Canal  into  Glacier 
Bay. 


212  KEELER 

» 

When  we  finally  cast  anchor  before  Muir  Glacier,  birds 
were  forgotten  as  we  stood  under  the  spell  of  the  ice. 
Indeed,  it  scarcely  seemed  credible  that  birds  could  be  in 
such  a  place — so  cold,  austere,  and  terrible  it  appeared. 
Of  course,  we  expected  to  find  some  of  the  hardy  sea 
birds,  and  so  were  not  surprised  to  notice  glaucous- 
winged  gulls  flying  about  the  inlet  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
inland  channels.  One  might  fancy  their  feet  would  get 
cold,  as  numbers  of  them  rested  upon  floating  cakes  of  ice. 
The  California  murre,  one  of  the  species  of  diving  birds, 
which  we  afterwards  encountered  in  great  abundance,  also 
rested  upon  the  bergs,  and  violet-green  cormorants  swam 
with  agile  movements  in  the  icy  water.  The  cormorant 
when  on  rocks  or  ice  is  a  most  ungainly  bird,  but  is  inter- 
esting for  all  that.  Its  body  is  heavy  and  clumsy,  and  its 
slender  stretched-out  neck  seems  to  end  in  a  long,  narrow 
bill,  so  slight  is  the  enlargement  of  the  head.  A  naked 
skin-pocket  covers  the  throat,  and  the  clumsy  toes  are  all 
connected  by  a  web.  The  violet-green  cormorant,  as  if 
to  atone  for  its  ungraceful  outline,  is  resplendent  in  a  coat 
of  burnished  blackish-green,  varied  with  purple  iridescence 
on  the  neck.  Its  gular  sac,  as  the  naked  skin  of  the  throat 
is  called,  is  coral  red,  and  its  bill  and  feet  are  black.  To 
add  to  its  individuality,  this  species  has  two  crests,  one  on 
the  top  of  the  head,  the  other  on  the  back  of  the  neck, 
while  the  flanks  are  adorned  with  patches  of  loose,  white 
feathers. 

A  few  black  brants  were  observed  flying  overhead,  an 
occasional  raven  flapped  along  the  shore,  and  here  we  had 
our  first  glimpse  of  the  beautiful  harlequin  duck,  swimming 
amid  the  floating  icebergs.  Here,  too,  was  that  peerless 
diver,  the  Pacific  black-throated  loon;  the  marbled  mur- 
relet  sported  in  the  icy  waters,  and  the  pigeon  guille- 
mots and  tufted  puffins  gave  variety  and  animation  to  the 
scene. 


1.  ViOLET-GREEN    CORMORANT,   PHALACROCORAX  PELAOICUS    ROBUSTUS 

Point  Gustavus,  Glacier  Bay,  June  11,  1899. 

£.  WHITE -CRESTED  CORMORANT,  PHALACROCORAX  DILOPHUS  CINCINATUS 
Kukak  Bay  Alaska  Peninsula,  July  1899. 


BIRDS    NEAR    MUIR    GLACIER  213 

Of  the  more  delicate  land  birds,  however,  it  seemed  im- 
possible that  any  could  exist  in  such  a  spot.  At  the  head 
of  the  inlet  the  glacier  wound  down  from  the  distant  moun- 
tain range,  and  discharged  its  bergs  into  the  water  with  an 
intermittent  roar  like  thunder.  Upon  both  sides  the  shores 
were  treeless  and  precipitous,  save  where  the  dreary  mo- 
notony of  the  moraine  stretched  out  its  undulating  mass 
of  gravel.  The  mountains  were  dark,  forbidding,  and 
steep,  with  nothing  to  cover  the  naked  rock  or  soften  its 
outlines.  To  search  for  song  birds  in  such  a  spot  would 
seem  an  idle  task. 

On  a  memorable  Sunday  morning  I  went  for  a  tramp  in 
company  with  John  Burroughs.  Provided  with  lunch, 
field  glasses,  and  camera,  we  were  landed  on  the  eastern 
shore.  Crossing  the  rough  mass  of  gravel  piled  into  hills 
and  valleys,  we  jumped  the  rushing  torrent  that  carried 
the  melting  water  from  the  glacier,  and  began  to  ascend. 
It  was  steep,  rough  work,  compelling  us  to  stop  fre- 
quently for  breathing  spells.  Climbing  up  the  wall  of 
shale  and  slate  we  found  ourselves  upon  a  little  flat  space 
where  a  clump  of  low  alders  grew,  and  here,  to  our  sur- 
prise, the  dainty  summer  warbler  in  his  golden  coat,  with 
the  fine  reddish  streakings  upon  his  breast,  was  singing 
the  same  animated  song  that  he  sings  along  the  Hudson 
River  and  in  the  groves  of  California.  He  and  his  little 
mate  had  sought  out  this  oasis  amid  rock  and  ice,  and 
hither  they  had  come  the  long  journey  to  rear  their  brood  in 
seclusion. 

We  rested  amid  the  alders,  took  a  drink  from  the  moun- 
tain torrent  that  poured  down  over  the  rocks  from  the 
snow  drifts  above,  and  finally  started  on  what  proved  to 
be  a  very  hard,  rough  scramble  over  the  precipitous  shale 
to  the  summit. 

After  we  had  looked  long  and  lingeringly  at  the  view, 
we  turned  our  attention  to  the  birds,  a  goodly  number  of 


K  Ji*  xt>  \~j  li*  -K. 


which  were  singing  about  us.  I  was  delighted  to  hear  the 
American  titlark  or  pipit  in  its  full  summer  frenzy  of  song. 
Throughout  the  winter  large  flocks  of  this  species  haunt 
the  fields  and  open  hillsides  of  California,  running  about 
over  the  ground  and  pausing  every  now  and  then  with  a 
peculiarly  characteristic  teetering  motion  of  the  body. 
At  that  season  I  have  never  heard  any  note  save  their 
faintly  reiterated  lisping  call.  They  are  simply  colored, 
with  an  olive-brown  back  faintly  streaked  with  blackish 
lines,  and  a  pale  brownish-buff  breast  covered  with  dusky 
marks.  In  summer  time  the  colors  are  much  clearer  and 
sharper,  the  wings  and  tail  being  nearly  black,  varied  with 
white,  and  the  breast  becoming  a  warmer  brown.  But  the 
song  of  the  pipit  interested  us  more  than  its  dress.  This 
blithe  sprite  of  the  northland,  lark  that  he  is,  would  fly 
straight  up  in  the  air,  singing  in  an  excited  manner  a  flute- 
like,  though  very  simple,  crescendo  —  twit  I  twit!  twit! 
twit!  —  and  then  suddenly  descend,  still  singing  and  flut- 
tering, pausing  only  in  his  breathless  strain  as  he  alighted 
on  the  ground  in  the  gorge  hundreds  of  feet  below,  where, 
no  doubt,  his  mate  was  awaiting  him  with  hushed  expect- 
ancy. 

Again,  as  at  the  summit  of  White  Pass,  the  golden- 
crowned  sparrow  sang  in  the  inverted  sequence  of  notes, 
but  it  sounded  none  the  less  sweet  and  appealing.  Among 
the  stunted  alder  thickets  the  dwarf  thrushes  were  singing 
in  great  numbers.  Their  strain,  while  much  thinner  and 
finer  than  the  song  of  the  russet-backed  thrush,  has  a 
truly  spiritual  quality  that  lends  it  charm.  It  is  a  sweet, 
silvery  call  with  a  slight  liquid  gurgle  in  its  trill,  and  gives 
the  effect  of  distance  even  when  the  singer  is  close  at  hand. 

Townsend's  sparrow  was  also  common  and  in  song. 
Its  note  was  frequently  varied,  with  just  a  suggestion  of 
the  song  sparrow's  tone.  The  syllables  most  often  re- 
peated sounded  thus:  ts-tui!  ts-ivi!  tsi-tsi-tsi'-a!  We 


•  : 

• 


:?£ 

5"  a 


PTARMIGAN  215 

were  interested  in  watching  that  other  hardy  member  of 
the  finch  family  which  we  grew  to  associate  with  all  our 
rambles  on  the  heights  —  Hepburn's  leucosticte.  It  is  a 
variety  of  the  gray-crowned  leucosticte,  or  rosy  finch,  as 
I  prefer  to  call  it  —  a  rather  large  sparrow  of  a  dark  brown 
color,  varied  by  an  ashen-gray  patch  on  the  back  of  the 
head,  and  with  the  feathers  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tail 
broadly  edged  with  rosy  red.  We  found  these  birds  in 
pairs  running  about  on  the  crusted  snow,  picking  up  food 
on  its  surface  and  along  its  edges.  The  only  note  we  de- 
tected was  a  deep-toned  sparrow  twitter,  uttered  on  the 
wing. 

Still  another  hardy  bird  that  rears  its  brood  not  far 
from  the  banks  of  snow,  is  the  white-tailed  ptarmigan. 
In  many  parts  of  Alaska  we  found  this  species  and  the 
willow  ptarmigan  abundant  and  surprisingly  tame.  They 
are  beautiful  birds,  a  trifle  smaller  than  a  grouse,  and 
famous  for  their  seasonal  changes  of  plumage,  the  entire 
body  becoming  pure  white  in  winter  and  turning  more  or 
less  brown  in  summer.  Thus  at  all  seasons  the  plumage 
harmonizes  completely  with  its  surroundings,  the  finely 
mottled  brown,  black,  and  white  of  the  back  and  breast 
blending  as  perfectly  with  the  rocks  upon  which  it  rests 
in  summer  as  does  the  white  with  the  snow  of  winter. 

Although  we  had  our  first  glimpse  of  these  interesting 
birds  during  the  second  week  of  June,  we  observed  several 
which  were  nearly  pure  white  and  others  which  showed 
but  small  patches  of  dark.  Is  it  not  possible  that  where 
they  dwell  so  close  to  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  the  adjust- 
ment of  coloration  to  environment  is  so  complete  that  the 
loss  of  the  white  plumage  is  much  retarded  or  restricted  ? 
A  white-tailed  ptarmigan  stood  looking  at  us  only  a  few 
feet  away,  seemingly  dazed  by  the  novel  sight  of  man. 
He  was  a  beautiful  white  fellow  with  only  the  conspicu- 
ous orange-yellow  skin  above  the  eye  showing  by  way  of 


2l6  KEELER 

variety.  For  some  moments  he  stretched  his  neck  about, 
looking  now  this  way,  now  that,  and  then,  starting  off  with 
a  queer,  guttural  chuckle,  flapped  his  wings  until  he  was 
well  launched  in  air,  when  suddenly  checking  his  flight  he 
sailed  with  a  graceful  swoop  down  to  the  level  reaches  of 
the  moraine  far  below. 

Such  was  the  life  in  this  aerial  garden  where,  beside 
banks  of  eternal  snow,  birds  sang  and  flowers  bloomed  un- 
heeding the  pageant  of  splendid  desolation  stretching  in 
vast  sweeps  from  horizon  to  horizon.  What  miracle 
could  be  more  impressive  than  this  of  the  rude  rock 
mother,  cradling  upon  her  breast,  as  the  ice  slipped  away, 
the  gentle  epilobium  and  the  timid  thrush!  What  pic- 
tures it  brings  to  mind  of  the  days  long  gone  when  the  ice 
crowded  down  from  the  north,  sweeping  all  living  things 
before  its  resistless  march,  followed  by  its  slow  and  re- 
luctant retreat,  and  by  the  eager  rush  of  life  into  the  re- 
gion which  it  had  laid  waste !  Here,  to-day,  is  the  living 
counterpart  of  the  ice  age.  With  the  same  dauntless 
spirit,  the  same  simple  trust,  now  as  then,  are  the  birds 
and  flowers  thronging  to  the  threshold  of  the  ice  king's 
palace,  to  reclaim  and  make  lovely  the  land  that  has  been 
visited  with  utter  desolation. 

On  awakening  one  morning  at  Yakutat  we  found  our 
ship  anchored  in  front  of  the  Indian  village.  A  small 
party  of  us  made  preparations  for  an  early  start  ashore, 
with  equipment  for  a  few  days  in  camp.  We  selected  a 
spot  upon  a  sandy  beach  in  a  little  cove  about  a  mile  from 
the  village,  a  clear  stream  emptying  into  the  bay  close  by. 
After  breakfast  in  camp  Mr.  Ridgway  and  I  started  out  in 
our  rowboat  to  look  for  birds.  We  first  noticed  a  flock 
of  white-winged  scoters  swimming  near  a  rocky  point, 
where  they  were  no  doubt  breakfasting  on  mussels. 
They  are  clumsy,  black  sea  ducks  with  white  wir  •»  spots 
and  with  the  upper  mandible  greatly  swollen  at  the  base 


~ 

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BIRDS    OF   YAKUTAT    BAY 

and  colored  a  brilliant  red.  The  female  lacks  the  swelling 
of  the  beak  and  is  dull  grayish-brown  in  color. 

Next  a  flock  of  Arctic  terns  was  seen  —  slender,  pale- 
gray  and  pearl-blue,  swallow-like  cousins  of  the  gulls, 
with  long  forked  tails,  black  caps,  and  sharp,  carmine-col- 
ored bills.  They  were  airily  fluttering  over  the  water  and 
splashing  in  every  now  and  then  for  a  fish.  Their  high, 
creaking  rattle  of  a  cry  was  constantly  uttered  as  they 
fluttered  and  gyrated  over  the  spot  where  a  school  of 
small  fish  was  swimming. 

We  rowed  to  the  settlement,  which  is  composed  of 
houses  built  in  the  most  hideously  modern  fashion  with 
clapboards  and  paint,  and,  upon  landing,  strolled  off  into 
a  partly  cleared  spot  where  birds  seemed  plentiful.  Here 
Mr.  Ridgway  found  a  race  of  song  sparrow  he  had  recently 
described,  and  collected  such  specimens  as  he  needed  for 
further  studies.  Townsend's  sparrow  was  also  abundant 
and  in  full  song.  We  heard  the  bright  notes  of  the  sum- 
mer warbler  and  found  the  pileolated  warbler  in  numbers. 
This  golden  sylph  with  its  cap  of  black  has  a  dainty  though 
rather  jerky  song,  a  fine,  rapidly  uttered  pipe  —  tsi-tsi-tsi- 
tsi-tsi!  The  dwarf  hermit  thrush  uttered  its  silvery  gurg- 
ling song  every  now  and  then  —  tive'-ti-twe-dle-de-dle! 
and  occasionally  from  the  forest  we  heard  the  strain  of 
the  ruby-crowned  kinglet  —  a  surprisingly  loud  and  clear 
song  for  so  small  a  bird.  The  lutescent  warbler,  in  olive- 
green  and  dull  yellow,  trilled  amid  the  bushes,  a  strain  not 
unlike  that  of  the  chipping  sparrow,  but  not  so  high-pitched 
and  prolonged.  Altogether  there  was  a  merry  chorus 
about  the  Indian  village  which  did  much  to  atone  for  the 
prosaic  appearance  of  the  settlement. 

On  the  following  day  Mr.  Ridgway  and  I  again  went 
for  a  ramble,  taking  advantage  of  a  lull  in  the  rain,  that 
fell  much  of  the  time  we  were  in  camp,  and  were  re- 
warded by  the  sight  of  several  previously  undetected  birds. 


2l8  KEELER 

The  woods  back  of  our  camp  were  like  other  forests  of 
the  Alaska  coast,  dense  and  impenetrable.  Hemlock 
boughs  reached  out  their  flattened  sprays,  and  the  Sitka 
spruce  held  forth  its  branches  tipped  with  bright  new 
tassels.  Raindrops  clung  to  every  leaf  and  showered  us 
with  spray  as  we  passed  under  the  overhanging  limbs. 
Mosses,  liverworts,  and  lichens  covered  the  ground  and 
crowded  upon  the  trunks  of  the  trees.  At  every  step  the 
foot  sank  into  a  cushion  of  heavy  velvet  or  a  pool  of  water. 
Ferns  grew  in  profusion,  and  bright  green  scouring-rushes 
fringed  the  forest.  Salmon  berries  and  the  famous  Yaku- 
tat  strawberries  were  in  blossom.  Besides  the  birds  we 
had  previously  observed  as  abundant  in  the  vicinity,  we 
saw  the  pert  little  brown  winter  wren,  and  heard  its 
merry,  wheezy,  rattling  attempt  at  a  song.  Here  also  Mr. 
Ridgway  secured  a  specimen  of  the  Kadiak  pine  grosbeak 
in  full  plumage.  We  had  observed  a  number  of  birds  of 
that  species  in  the  forest,  but  from  their  note  had  mistaken 
them  for  purple  finches.  This  large,  beautiful  finch,  with 
its  very  thick  beak  and  showy  rosy-red  plumage,  varied 
on  the  back  and  belly  with  ashen-gray,  is  an  inhabitant  of 
the  forested  regions  of  Alaska,  where  it  rears  its  young  in 
the  solitude  of  the  dark  groves  of  spruce. 

During  the  two  following  days,  which  were  spent  aboard 
ship  cruising  about  Yakutat  Bay,  we  secured  specimens  of 
both  the  pomarine  and  parasitic  jaeger,  and  I  observed  one 
of  the  latter  birds  pursuing  an  Arctic  tern  which  held  a 
fish  in  its  beak.  The  jaegers  are  the  winged  pirates  of 
these  northern  seas.  They  belong  to  the  gull  family,  but 
differ  much  from  other  members  of  the  group,  both  in 
habits  and  plumage.  Imagine  a  trim-built  bird  of  vigor- 
ous and  sustained  flight,  agile  in  turning,  and  impetuous 
in  attack  —  a  bird  about  afoot  and  a  half  in  length,  with  a 
rather  long  tail  terminating  in  two  elongated  central  feath- 
ers projecting  two  or  more  inches  beyond  the  rest  —  such 


BIRDS    OF   COLLEGE    FIORD  219 

is  the  jaeger  in  form.  In  color  it  is  dark  brown  or  sooty- 
slate  upon  the  back,  and  either  pure  white  or  brownish- 
black  on  the  underparts. 

While  walking  in  the  vicinity  of  a  camp  of  Indians  at 
the  head  of  Yakutat  Bay,  several  of  us  encountered  a 
mother  willow  ptarmigan  with  her  brood  of  chicks.  Dr. 
Merriam  caught  one  of  the  young  birds  and  its  cries 
speedily  attracted  the  hen  who  came  to  within  three  or 
four  feet  of  us  in  her  eagerness  to  effect  the  release  of  her 
young.  On  setting  it  free  the  entire  brood  speedily  dis- 
appeared in  the  bushes.  So  completely  do  the  ptarmigans 
rely  upon  their  coloration  for  protection  that  at  Glacier 
Bay  a  bird  sitting  on  her  eggs  allowed  Dr.  Palache  to  pick 
her  up  without  making  the  slightest  effort  to  escape. 

Our  next  point  of  exploration  after  leaving  Yukutat 
Bay  was  within  the  sheltering  recesses  of  Prince  William 
Sound,  where  reaches  of  dark  forest  fringe  the  shores  and 
snow-covered  ranges  tower  in  the  background.  These 
uninhabited  wastes  seemed  almost  destitute  of  bird  life, 
and  one  might  toil  for  hours  through  the  tangle  beneath 
the  dark  spruce  trees  without  hearing  a  bird  lisp.  At 
times  the  merry  chatter  of  a  small  flock  of  chestnut- 
backed  chickadees  would  interrupt  the  silence,  or  more 
rarely  the  harsh  notes  of  Steller's  jay,  to  be  followed  by 
a  still  deeper  calm  when  the  wind  amid  the  branches 
would  breathe  like  some  vast  sleeper  that  could  not  be 
aroused.  At  Orca  I  heard  a  western  robin  sing. 

During  a  day  of  exploration  in  that  wonderful  inlet 
which  our  geographers  named  College  Fiord,  we  found 
birds  somewhat  more  abundant,  although  still  very  lim- 
ited in  the  number  of  species.  Indeed,  the  only  land 
bird  which  seemed  thoroughly  at  home  here  on  the  verge 
of  the  glaciers  was  Townsend's  sparrow,  which  frequented 
the  dwarf  alders  of  the  moraines.  Dr.  Fisher  recorded 
the  redpoll  linnet,  another  hardy  bird  of  the  north- 


22O  KEELER 

land  that  visits  the  United  States  only  in  the  coldest 
weather.  Upon  a  low,  rolling  shore  of  gravel  between 
two  of  the  smaller  glaciers  of  this  remarkable  fiord  we 
came  upon  a  nesting  place  of  short-billed  gulls  and  Arctic 
terns.  The  nests  were  on  the  ground  and  were  formed 
by  making  a  depression  in  a  clump  of  grass  and  epilo- 
bium,  sometimes  scantily  lined  with  additional  sticks  and 
dried  grass.  Indeed  the  terns  made  almost  no  attempt  at 
nest  building,  depositing  their  eggs  upon  the  stony  ground 
with  but  the  flimsiest  lining  of  loose  grass.  The  eggs 
were  marvelously  protected  in  their  exposed  position, 
their  color  blending  so  perfectly  with  their  surroundings 
that  we  frequently  were  on  the  point  of  treading  on  them 
before  detecting  their  presence.  The  eggs  of  the  two 
birds  are  very  similar  in  color,  although  those  of  the  gull 
are  of  course  much  larger.  The  ground  color  is  olive, 
irregularly  spotted  with  brown  and  obscure  lilac.  The 
gulls'  nests  contained,  as  a  rule,  three  eggs,  while  most  of 
the  terns'  held  but  two. 

The  short-billed  gull  in  breeding  plumage  is  a  beautiful 
bird,  with  its  snowy  white  body,  its  delicate  pearl-gray 
mantle,  and  its  black  flight-feathers  tipped  with  subter- 
minal  spots  of  white.  We  noted  the  dull  yellow  of  its 
feet,  its  waxy-yellow  bill,  its  gray  eye  and  the  striking 
spot  of  vermilion  on  its  eyelid.  The  parent  birds  hovered 
with  extreme  solicitude  over  the  spot  where  their  eggs 
were  concealed,  uttering  a  short,  insistent  note  of  a  de- 
cidedly squeaky  and  unmusical  quality —  tup  I  tup!  tup! 
ye'  up  !  ye  up  !  Sometimes  the  cry  was  varied  thus :  ke- 
upl  kup!  kup!  and  they  also  had  a  higher  uninflected 
cry.  We  saw  a  number  of  black  oyster-catchers  running 
along  the  beach  —  big  waders  with  long,  blunt,  vermilion 
beaks,  long,  agile  legs,  and  blackish-brown  bodies. 

Another  day  during  our  stay  in  Prince  William  Sound 
we  visited  one  of  the  alpine  meadows  which  are  so  char- 


BIRDS    OF    PRINCE    WILLIAM    SOUND  221 

acteristic  of  the  forested  portions  of  Alaska.  It  is  with 
a  thrill  of  pleasure  that  the  traveler  encounters  one  of 
these  secluded  meadows  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by  track- 
less forests  or  untraveled  waterways.  Imagine  an  open 
glade  half  a  mile  in  length,  with  gently  undulating  sur- 
face, and  here  and  there  a  dwarf  spruce  or  an  alpine  hem- 
lock, twisted  and  gnarled,  looking  in  its  fantastic  shape 
like  the  handiwork  of  a  Japanese  gardener.  A  carpet  of 
dense  moss,  in  which  the  feet  sink  at  every  step,  covers 
the  ground,  and  here  and  there  are  pools  of  water,  imag- 
ing the  frail  flowers  which  sway  upon  their  banks.  Here 
grow  the  golden  geum,  the  dainty  little  white  stars,  both 
the  pink-belled  and  white-belled  heathers,  the  small 
bunchberry  or  ground  dogwood,  the  beautiful  purple  nod- 
ding dodecatheon,  the  waving  white  fluffs  of  the  cotton 
grass,  and  the  minute  little  purple  bells  of  butterwort. 
A  solitary  dwarf  thrush  stood  on  the  edge  of  the  meadow 
with  a  mouthful  of  grubs  for  her  little  ones  and  a  western 
savanna  sparrow  sang  its  fine  wheezy  little  tsip,  tsip, 
tr-ieee'  I  —  but  of  other  birds  we  saw  no  sign  in  all  this 
lovely  wilderness  of  flowers.  In  the  edge  of  the  woods 
near  by,  Dr.  Merriam  shot  a  Canada  grouse,  and  upon  the 
shores  the  northwest  crows  cawed  and  pranced,  but  for 
the  most  part  the  alpine  meadows  as  well  as  the  forests 
surrounding  them  were  seldom  enlivened  by  the  voices  of 
birds. 

Of  all  the  regions  visited  in  Alaska,  none  seemed  so 
much  like  home  as  Kadiak,  with  its  green  hill  slopes,  its 
inviting  woodlands,  its  flowers  and  its  birds.  Here, 
tucked  away  on  an  inlet  of  the  ocean,  nestling  at  the  foot 
of  steep  grassy  hills,  lay  the  little  hamlet,  unheeding  the 
far-away  busy  world,  and  fast  settling  into  an  eternal 
sleep,  untroubled  save  by  dreams  of  the  historic  past.  It 
was  the  first  of  July  when  we  arrived  and  the  air  was  full  of 
the  balmy  cheer  of  summer.  Shortly  after  landing  I  went 


222  KEELER 

for  a  stroll  with  Professor  Ritter,  and  we  fancied  ourselves 
treading  again  the  well-loved  coast  ranges  of  California. 
The  hills  rise  in  a  very  steep  slope,  but  they  are  covered 
with  a  heavy  turf,  affording  firm  and  easy  footing.  The 
entire  mountain  side  was  a  garden  of  beautiful  flowers. 
Fleur-de-lis  lifted  their  stately  purple  heads,  and  the  blue 
polemonium  was  scattered  near  and  far.  A  deep  pink- 
purple  orchid,  with  clusters  of  flowers  on  a  stalk,  grew 
here  and  there,  and  white  windflowers  crowded  the 
slopes.  Then  there  were  lady's  slippers,  violets,  forget- 
me-nots  and  fritellarias  —  making  in  all  the  most  exquisite 
pageant  of  wild  flowers  we  had  ever  seen. 

In  the  midst  of  this  flower  garden  were  many  birds  in 
song  —  the  large  dark  Kadiak  song  sparrow,  the  savanna 
sparrow,  summer  warbler,  pileolated  warbler,  dwarf 
thrush,  and,  most  abundant  of  all,  the  golden-crowned 
sparrow,  singing  the  same  plaintive  song  that  we  hear  in 
the  valleys  of  California  throughout  the  winter.  It  was  a 
perfect  medley  of  sweet  tones  ringing  over  the  mountains 
far  and  wide  —  a  chorus  of  tender  minstrelsy  in  a  setting 
of  innumerable  flowers.  A  tangle  of  dwarf  alders  beside 
a  stream  that  trickled  down  the  mountain  side  was  the 
rendezvous  of  the  birds,  and  here  we  watched  their  merry- 
making. Below  us  were  the  town  beside  the  narrow  inlet, 
islands,  bays,  and  mountains  with  green  slopes,  dark 
masses  of  forest,  and  in  the  distance,  ridges  topped  with 
snow. 

One  morning  I  started  off  alone  for  a  walk  in  the  woods 
to  enjoy  the  birds  and  flowers,  taking  the  road  that  led 
into  the  spruce  forest  and  wandering  on  until  I  found  a 
grove  of  beautiful  moss-covered  old  trees.  It  was  Sun- 
day, and  in  the  distance  the  bells  of  the  Russian  church 
were  clanging  and  jingling  —  big  bells  and  little  ones  all 
ringing  at  once.  I  was  in  an  open  park-like  glade,  with 
small  spruce  trees  all  about,  and  glimpses  of  verdant  hill- 


BIRDS    OF    KADIAK  223 

sides,  their  summits  lost  in  mist.  The  air  was  balmy  in 
spite  of  a  foggy  atmosphere,  and  on  every  side  was  a 
glorious  chorus  of  bird  songs  —  the  bell-like  tones  of  the 
dwarf  hermit  and  gray-cheeked  thrushes,  the  sweet  strain 
of  the  varied  robin,  and  the  plaintive,  long-drawn  whistle 
of  the  golden-crowned  sparrow.  The  animated,  sustained, 
and  rapid  tsit-tsit-tsit-tsit  of  the  pileolated  warbler,  the 
chatter  of  the  redpoll  linnets  and  the  hoarse  croak  of  the 
raven,  all  sounded  together  or  in  rapid  succession. 

The  redpoll  is  a  small  bird  of  the  finch  family,  with  fine 
sharp  bill  and  dull  brown  and  gray  streaked  plumage. 
The  head  is  reddish-brown,  or,  in  full-plumaged  males, 
bright  rosy-red,  the  throat  is  black,  and  when  in  full 
plumage  a  bright  rose  color  tinges  most  of  the  body.  The 
note  of  the  redpoll  is  similar  to  that  of  the  goldfinch,  but 
with  more  of  a  chatter  in  its  quality.  The  sweet,  direct, 
loud,  burring  trill  or  whistle  of  the  varied  robin  was  a 
very  characteristic  strain,  differing  from  any  other  bird 
song  I  have  ever  heard.  It  is  without  modulation  —  a 
single  sweetly  penetrating  note  with  just  the  slightest 
gurgling  rattle  in  quality,  and  pitched  in  various  keys.  It 
may  be  represented  thus :  Brrrrrrrrrr!  I  saw  some 
of  these  birds  among  the  spruce  trees  —  quiet  and  digni- 
fied, shunning  society.  One  had  food  in  its  bill  evidently 
intended  for  its  young.  The  call  note  was  a  low,  liquid 
chup!  chup!  This  noble  thrush  of  the  northwestern 
forests  is  about  the  size  and  build  of  a  robin.  Its  breast 
is  orange  brown,  marked  with  a  broad  black  crescentic 
collar,  and  its  back  is  dark  slaty  or  plumbeous.  A  con- 
spicuous stripe  above  the  eye  and  double  wing-bars  are 
orange-brown  or  buffy  in  tone. 

The  golden-crowned  sparrow,  besides  its  song,  has  two 
distinct  call  notes  —  a  fine,  lisping  tsip!  tsip!  which  it 
utters  during  its  winter  sojourns  in  California,  and  a  spar- 
row-like chirp  —  chip!  chip!  Townsend's  sparrow  sang 


224 


KEELER 


a  sweet,  lively  ditty  which  I  transcribed  into  these  inade- 
quate phrases:  pea-quit!  quit!  —  tsit-a-iuie! — pea-a- 
quit-quit-quit-a-wie  !  Its  call  note  was  a  thick-billed 
sparrow  chirp. 

I  spent  some  time  listening  to  the  thrushes  in  order  to 
distinguish  the  songs  and  calls  of  the  gray-cheek  from  those 
of  the  dwarf  hermit.  The  two  birds  may  be  readily  told 
apart  by  the  paler  and  grayer  brown  of  the  former  species 
contrasted  with  the  warm  rufous  of  the  tail  and  coverts 
of  the  latter.  The  gray-cheek  sang  more  like  a  russet- 
backed  thrush,  although  its  strain  was  not  so  full  and  rich. 
Its  song  may  be  represented  thus :  qui-qmt-iui!  qui-qmt- 
quitl  the  quit  always  with  the  characteristic  liquid  gurgle 
of  a  thrush.  At  other  times  it  sang,  tsi-tsi-qiiil'  —  tsi- 
quil' !  or  qui-quil'  I  qui-quil' !  Its  call  note  was  a  liquid 
pe'-a!  pe'-a!  In  contrast  with  this  was  the  call  of  the 
dwarf  thrush,  a  peevish  cat-call  chee!  chee!  The  charac- 
teristic nervous  flirt  of  the  wings  accompanied  this  call. 
At  times  I  heard  them  utter  the  note  so  commonly  sounded 
during  the  winter  months  —  a  low,  emphatic  chuck! 
chuck! 

Here  also  the  summer  warbler  was  in  song,  and  the 
Kadiak  pine  grosbeak.  In  these  same  woods  I  met  for 
the  first  time  the  long-tailed  chickadee,  a  western  race  of 
the  familiar  eastern  species,  from  which  it  differs  in  its 
slightly  paler  coloration,  and,  as  its  name  implies,  in  the 
possession  of  a  longer  tail. 

Upon  another  occasion  Mr.  Burroughs  and  I  went  for  a 
ramble  in  the  forest  on  Wood  Island,  opposite  the  town  of 
Kadiak.  It  was  a  warm,  beautiful  day,  and  the  woods 
were  in  a  peculiarly  inviting  mood.  We  started  off  from 
the  end  of  a  little  pond  at  the  site  of  an  old  Russian  saw- 
mill, and  took  a  cow  trail  into  the  timber.  The  first  song 
to  attract  our  attention  was  that  of  the  western  winter 
wren  —  a  merry  sustained  little  jingle,  but  without  any 


POLEMONIUMS  from  KADIAK.  ALASKA. 
1  &  2.  Polemoruum  caeruleura  Linn. 


BIRDS    OF    KADIAK  225 

fulness  of  tone  or  melody.  Next  we  found  a  magpie  — 
a  fine-plumaged  saucy  fellow  in  his  coat  of  white  and 
burnished  black,  his  long  tail  trailing  after  him  as  he  flut- 
tered about  in  the  bushes.  Much  to  our  surprise  the 
magpie  proved  a  common  and  characteristic  bird. 

As  we  worked  our  way  carefully  through  the  masses 
of  devil's  club,  with  its  broad-spreading  indented  leaves 
growing  on  a  tall  bare  stalk,  bristling  with  spines  as  sharp 
as  porcupine  quills  —  over  or  under  fallen  trees  and 
around  the  bogs  we  encountered  now  and  then,  we  heard 
the  fine  lisp  of  the  western  golden-crowned  kinglet,  the 
chatter  of  the  long-tailed  chickadee  and  the  sweet  note 
of  the  varied  robin.  The  golden-crowned  kinglet  is  a 
beautiful  little  bird  —  a  tiny  fellow  with  a  plain  gray  breast 
and  an  olive-green  back;  but  of  all  wood  creatures  he  is 
the  most  perfectly  crowned.  Upon  the  top  of  his  head  is 
a  spot  of  flaming  orange  set  in  yellow  and  bordered  with 
bars  of  black,  next  to  which,  just  over  the  eyes,  are  lines 
of  white.  His  little  queen  has  a  similar,  though  less  bril- 
liant crown,  in  which  the  orange  flame  is  replaced  by 
yellow. 

After  leaving  Kadiak  we  had  no  opportunity  of  making 
note  of  bird  ways  until  we  touched  for  an  hour  or  two  at 
Sand  Point  on  Popof  Island,  one  of  the  Shumagin  group. 
We  had  passed  well  beyond  the  forested  part  of  Alaska, 
and  were  destined  to  see  henceforth  only  grassy  mountain 
slopes  and  Arctic  tundras,  with  dwarf  alders,  willows,  and 
birches  nestling  in  the  hollows.  A  goodly  number  of 
birds  were  abroad  on  the  morning  we  anchored  off  Sand 
Point.  From  the  ship's  deck  I  heard  the  chatter  of  barn 
swallows  (which,  by  the  way,  were  also  abundant  about 
the  village  of  Kadiak),  the  plaintive  strain  of  the  golden- 
crowned  sparrow,  the  simple  ditty  of  the  Aleutian  song 
sparrow,  the  sprightly  song  of  the  summer  warbler,  and 
the  harsh  call  of  the  magpie.  The  song  of  the  dwarf 


226  KEELER 

thrush  sounded  sweet  and  pure,  chiming  afar  off  in  silvery 
tones.  After  breakfast  Mr.  Burroughs  and  I  went  for  a 
brief  stroll  ashore,  and  discovered  in  addition  to  the  birds 
previously  heard,  the  redpoll  and  Townsend's  sparrow. 
A  mother  song  sparrow  started  up  suddenly  at  our  feet, 
and  a  search  of  the  neighborhood  revealed  the  little  grass 
nest  skillfully  tucked  away  in  a  niche  under  an  overhang- 
ing bank.  The  greenish  brown-spotted  eggs  seemed  large 
for  a  song  sparrow's.  We  noticed  a  bald  eagle  soaring  in 
the  air  suddenly  poise  on  fluttering  wing  like  a  hawk  look- 
ing for  a  mouse,  and  then  float  serenely  on.  Later  we 
saw  a  pair  sitting  on  the  rocks  on  the  beach. 

Our  hasty  survey  of  the  birds  was  interrupted  by  a 
summons  to  return  to  the  ship  and  ere  long  we  were  steam- 
ing on  toward  Unalaska.  Here  our  stay  was  so  brief  that 
I  noted  only  three  birds  among  the  grassy  plains  and  hills 
that  glowed  with  innumerable  wild  flowers  —  the  Alaska 
Lapland  longspur,  the  Aleutian  leucosticte  or  rosy  finch, 
and  the  raven.  The  longspur  is  a  summer  resident  of 
boreal  fields,  where  it  tarries  while  the  flowers  bloom,  and 
then  reluctantly  retires  southward,  keeping  pace  with  the 
advance  of  the  drifting  snow.  Its  head  and  breast  are 
black,  its  back  is  black  streaked  with  buff,  and  its  under- 
parts  white,  the  sides  streaked  with  black.  A  broad  buffy 
streak  above  the  eye  interrupts  the  black  of  the  head,  and 
a  collar  of  chestnut  extends  over  the  back  of  the  neck. 
The  song  of  the  longspur  is  loud,  sweet,  and  clear,  and 
uttered  upon  the  wing,  reminded  some  of  our  party  of  the 
rapturous  strain  of  the  bobolink. 

The  Aleutian  rosy  finch  is  a  large,  dark  chocolate-col- 
ored sparrow  with  an  ashen  hood  on  the  back  of  the  head 
and  a  black  forehead.  The  rear  portions  of  the  body  are 
more  or  less  tinged  with  rose.  Ravens  were  about  the 
settlement  in  great  numbers  and  as  tame  and  impish  in 
their  manners  as  at  other  coast  settlements. 


BIRDS    OF    PRIBILOF    ISLANDS  227 

On  anchoring  off  St.  Paul  Island,  one  of  the  Pribilofs  — 
the  famous  fur-seal  islands  of  Bering  Sea  —  our  entire 
party  went  ashore  in  boats  to  inspect  the  seals  on  their 
native  beaches.  On  the  verdant  hills  the  Aleutian  rosy 
finch  and  Alaska  Lapland  longspur  were  the  common 
birds,  and  a  royal  time  they  had  of  it  amid  the  fields  of 
frail  golden  poppies  and  pale-blue  polemoniums.  With 
such  a  coverlet  in  which  to  nestle,  what  cared  they  if  the 
salt  winds  swept  down  from  the  Arctic  Sea!  There  were 
acres  of  lupines,  too  —  beautiful  blue-purple  clusters  where 
the  Pribilof  snowflake  might  hide. 

Along  the  shore  we  saw  the  kittiwake  gulls  in  great 
numbers,  and  both  the  horned  and  tufted  puffins.  The 
least  auklets  nested  in  large  assemblies  among  the  rocks 
close  to  the  breaking  surf,  and  Pallas's  murre  was  present 
in  immense  flocks. 

While  our  ship  is  plowing  northward  over  the  inhospit- 
able sea,  it  may  be  well  to  take  a  general  survey  of  some 
of  the  low  forms  of  bird  life  which  delight  in  its  chill  air, 
congregating  in  vast  numbers  upon  its  storm-beaten  rocks 
to  rear  their  young. 

The  sea  birds  are  divided  into  five  easily  recognized 
groups  —  the  diving  birds,  including  such  queer  creatures 
as  the  auks,  murres,  and  puffins;  the  long-winged  swim- 
mers, into  which  group  fall  the  gulls  and  their  allies;  the 
tube-nosed  swimmers,  which  are  the  most  perfect  birds  of 
flight  and  embrace  the  albatrosses  and  petrels ;  the  wholly- 
webbed  swimmers,  in  which  division  the  cormorants  are 
placed;  and  the  ducks,  geese,  and  swans.  Each  of  these 
groups  is  abundantly  represented  in  Bering  Sea,  for  it  is 
in  such  northern  waters  that  the  sea  birds  love  most  to 
dwell. 

The  puffins  are  among  the  most  outlandish  birds  which 
ingenious  mother  nature  has  contrived  to  evolve.  They 
are  trim  in  build,  about  a  foot  in  length,  with  very  short 


228  KEELER 

feet  and  webbed  toes.  When  seated  on  the  rocks  they 
assume  an  erect  posture,  and  their  small  heads,  set  close 
down  upon  their  shoulders,  look  ridiculously  insignificant 
in  comparison  with  their  exaggerated  beaks,  which  are 
very  much  flattened  sidewise  and  immensely  spread  out 
from  top  to  bottom.  As  if  to  heighten  the  comic  effect, 
the  bill  is  brilliantly  colored,  and  the  stupid  little  face  be- 
hind it  appears  serenely  unaware  of  its  oddity.  This  great 
beak  is  largely  an  appendage  of  the  breeding  season  and 
is  cast  like  the  antlers  of  a  deer  at  the  end  of  that  period. 
The  tufted  puffin  is  brownish-black  above  and  dark  gray- 
ish-brown below,  with  a  conspicuous  white  patch  on  the 
side  of  the  face.  In  the  breeding  season  it  is  ornamented 
with  a  long  heavy  fluff  of  pale  yellow  feathers  extending 
backward  from  the  eye  on  each  side  of  the  crown,  and  its 
great  beak  is  scarlet  with  a  dull  yellow  base.  The  horned 
puffin  is  glossy-black  above  and  white  below,  the  white 
extending  up  on  the  sides  of  the  face.  It  has  a  small 
leathery  excrescence  on  the  upper  eyelid  which  has  given 
it  its  name,  and  its  bill  and  feet  are  a  brilliant  red. 

The  least  auklet,  one  of  the  smallest  of  diving  birds,  is 
very  plainly  attired,  with  its  black  back  and  white  breast 
varied  with  dusky  mottlings.  Its  short,  stout  beak  is 
bright  red,  and  it  has  a  series  of  fine  white  hair-like  plumes 
on  the  sides  of  the  head  back  of  the  eyes.  In  this  same 
group  of  diving  birds  are  the  murres,  which  inhabit  the 
entire  Pacific  coast  from  California  to  Bering  Sea.  The 
murres  are  a  foot  and  a-half  or  less  in  length,  with  long, 
sharply  pointed,  and  moderately  stout  beaks,  well  formed 
for  securing  their  funny  prey.  Their  heads,  throats,  and 
backs  are  a  smooth,  dark  grayish-brown  or  brownish- 
black  in  color,  sharply  contrasted  against  the  white  of  the 
underparts.  The  California  murre  has  the  top  of  the  head 
and  the  back  of  the  neck  smoky-brown,  the  same  parts 
being  black  in  Pallas's  murre.  The  latter  species  also  has 


1 .  TUFTED  PUFFIN,  LUNDA  CIRREATA 
2   HORNED  PUFFIN,  ERATKRCULA  CORNICULATA 


BIRDS    OF    BERING    SEA  229 

a  decidedly  thicker  bill.  Both  forms  are  present  in  vast 
multitudes  about  the  rocky  islands  of  Bering  Sea,  the 
Pallas's  murre  being  especially  abundant  and  outnumber- 
ing all  other  sea  birds  in  the  ratio  of  fully  ten  to  one. 

Comparatively  few  birds  were  seen  as  we  steamed  into 
a  brisk  head  wind  under  a  lowering  leaden  sky.  Murres 
whirred  past  in  flocks  every  now  and  then,  and  occasion- 
ally a  Pacific  fulmar  followed  in  the  ship's  wake.  The 
fulmar  is  about  as  large  as  a  fair-sized  gull,  but  with  longer 
and  more  slender  wings,  which  are  held  rigidly  out- 
stretched much  of  the  time  in  flight.  Although  an  ally  of 
the  albatross,  the  fulmar  has  not  the  supreme  command 
of  the  air  possessed  by  that  bird,  and  every  now  and  then 
must  resort  to  flapping  its  pinions.  This  species  is  peculiar 
in  having  two  phases  of  plumage  without  reference  to  sex 
or  season.  In  the  dark  phase  the  body  is  a  deep,  smoky- 
gray  above  and  below,  while  in  the  light  phase  the  plu- 
mage is  similar  to  that  of  many  adult  gulls  —  pure  white 
with  a  bluish-gray  mantle  over  the  back.  Many  that  we 
saw  were  in  a  mottled  plumage,  largely  white  but  with 
dark  patches  on  their  backs. 

At  times  a  silent  bird  with  slender,  far-reaching  pinions 
would  glide  out  of  the  mist,  gyrating  back  and  forth  over 
the  crested  waves  without  a  tremor  of  its  rigid  wings.  It 
looked  like  a  small  albatross  with  dark,  sooty-gray  or 
blackish  plumage,  and  we  made  it  out  to  be  the  slender- 
billed  shearwater.  It  is  a  creature  of  the  boundless  ocean, 
as  unimpeded  in  flight  as  the  wind  which  sustains  it. 

A  flock  of  harlequin  ducks  flew  past  with  rapid  wing 
strokes.  From  a  distance  they  looked  black  against  the 
leaden  sky,  but  as  they  came  abreast  of  us  the  white  bars 
across  the  head  were  very  conspicuous.  When  they  were 
gone  there  was  nothing  left  to  vary  the  monotony  of  gray 
until  two  or  three  kittiwake  gulls  came  sailing  daintily 
along.  The  kittiwakes  are  snowy  white  save  for  the 


230  KEELER 

pearl-gray  of  the  back  and  wings  and  the  sharp  black  tips 
to  the  flight  feathers.  Two  species  inhabit  Bering  Sea, 
the  Pacific  kittiwake  which  we  had  encountered  at  various 
points  on  the  Alaska  coast,  and  the  red-legged  kittiwake 
which  is  found  only  in  these  northern  waters. 

On  the  coast  of  Siberia,  where  we  touched  at  Plover 
Bay,  the  birds  seemed  limited  to  a  very  few  species. 
Snow  buntings  and  Lapland  longspurs  were  abundant, 
and  we  first  noted  there  the  Siberian  yellow  wagtail. 
This  bird  with  its  bluish-gray  crown  and  back  of  neck, 
its  olive-green  back  and  bright  yellow  breast,  is  a  com- 
mon inhabitant  of  the  tundras  about  the  shores  of  Ber- 
ing Sea. 

In  the  waters  of  Plover  Bay  we  found  the  pigeon  guille- 
mot abundant.  It  is  a  near  relative  of  the  murres  but  is 
smaller,  with  a  dark  body,  conspicuous  white  wing-patches, 
and  brilliant  red  feet.  Pallas's  murre  was  very  common 
and  many  kittiwake  gulls  were  observed  flying  about  the 
bay.  We  also  saw  flocks  of  least  auklets  swimming  on 
the  water,  and  noted  for  the  first  time  on  our  journey 
spectacled  eiders — the  males  with  their  conspicuous  white 
backs  contrasted  with  their  black  breasts,  and  the  females 
plain  mottled  brown. 

At  Port  Clarence  on  the  Alaska  coast,  where  our  next 
stop  was  made,  I  had  little  opportunity  of  observing  the 
birds.  The  longspurs,  snowflakes,  and  Siberian  yellow 
wagtails  were  the  characteristic  land  birds  of  the  tundras, 
and  the  golden  plover,  in  mottled  coat  of  golden-brown 
above  and  black  below,  with  its  loud,  clear,  flute-like  call, 
was  fascinating  to  those  who  had  the  good  fortune  to  en- 
counter it  upon  its  native  heath. 

We  reached  Hall  Island  in  the  evening,  and  landed 
upon  a  narrow  gravel  beach.  A  stream  came  down  to 
the  sea  at  this  point,  making  the  high  ground  accessible. 
On  either  side  rose  steep,  unscalable  cliffs  of  lava.  Sea 


GULLS  ON  ST.  GEORGE  ISLAND,  PRIBILOF  GROUP 


ON  WALRUS   ISLAND,  PRIBILOF  GROUP 


THE  HYPERBOREAN  SNOWFLAKE          23! 

birds  innumerable  were  fluttering  about  the  rocks.  We 
passed  a  rnurre  with  its  head  tucked  under  its  wing,  sleep- 
ing on  the  water  and  rocking  with  the  waves  like  a  beauti- 
ful little  boat.  Night  had  come,  although  the  sun  still 
lingered  above  the  western  horizon.  The  steamer  was 
vanishing  in  the  direction  of  St.  Matthew  Island.  Our 
little  party  was  left  alone  on  the  beach,  the  waves  swash- 
ing up  on  the  pebbled  shore  and  the  dark  cliffs  about  us 
swarming  with  sea  birds.  There  were  puffins,  pigeon 
guillemots,  and  least  auklets,  besides  the  vast  company  of 
murres,  and  the  cackling  of  innumerable  voices  made  an 
incessant  murmur  above  the  sound  of  the  sea. 

Upon  climbing  up  the  slopes  from  the  shore  we  found 
ourselves  upon  an  Arctic  tundra — a  great  rolling  plateau 
of  bog,  with  pools  of  water  in  every  hollow,  and  flowers 
growing  in  bewildering  profusion.  A  bed  of  moss  spread 
across  the  island  from  cliff  to  cliff  carpeting  everything 
with  its  soft  tones  of  gray,  brown,  purple,  and  green  — 
parts  of  it  like  velvet,  soft  and  yielding  to  the  tread,  and 
other  parts  spongy  and  soggy.  The  masses  of  flowers 
wove  richly  glowing  patterns  into  the  carpet,  in  purple, 
blue,  yellow,  and  white  —  the  purple  primrose  and  pedi- 
cularis,  the  blue  polemonium,  the  yellow  poppy,  a  fine 
golden  cowslip,  and  the  white-cupped  dryas. 

It  was  fitting  that  this  fairy  garden  in  the  midst  of  a 
stormy  sea  should  be  inhabited  by  one  of  the  most  chastely 
adorned  of  birds,  the  hyperborean  snowflake.  Verily  a 
snowflake  this  exquisite  creature  is,  as  it  whirls  through 
the  misty  glow  of  night  among  the  wastes  of  flowers.  Its 
plumage  is  as  candid  as  a  freshly  opened  lily.  The  spot- 
less white  shows  more  perfectly  by  contrast  with  the  jetty 
bill  and  the  blackness  of  the  wing  tips.  At  the  edge  of 
its  snowy  tail  are  two  other  black  dots.  It  is  a  sparrow 
transformed  into  a  wraith  of  the  snow.  It  is  adorned  with 
the  ermine  of  kings,  and  a  king  it  seems  amid  the  realm 


232  KEELER 

of  flowers.  Its  little  mate  has  the  back  streaked  with 
black  and  more  of  the  same  on  her  wings  and  tail,  but 
otherwise  her  plumage  is  white  like  that  of  her  lord  and 
master.  Nor  did  the  song  of  this  snowflake  prove  disap- 
pointing. It  was  a  loud,  sweet,  flute-like  warble,  fre- 
quently uttered  on  the  wing,  and  much  resembles  the  notes 
of  the  western  meadow  lark,although  rather  higher,  shriller, 
and  shorter.  We  noticed  the  birds  about  the  edge  of  the 
cliffs  as  well  as  upon  the  tundras,  and  their  business  in 
such  exposed  rocky  spots  was  explained  when  a  nest  was 
discovered  placed  far  back  in  a  crevice  in  the  rocks  upon 
the  cliff  wall.  The  nest  was  made  of  grasses  and  con- 
tained five  rather  light  greenish  eggs  dotted  with  pale 
brown.  Later  in  the  evening  another  nest  was  found  con- 
taining young  birds  which  came  to  the  edge  of  the  hole  to 
be  fed.  The  abundance  of  the  Arctic  fox  upon  the  island 
no  doubt  explains  the  unusual  places  in  which  the  snow- 
flakes  tuck  away  their  homes. 

The  Lapland  longspurs  also  were  very  common  upon 
Hall  Island,  the  males  with  their  fine  black  chests  and 
faces  and  chestnut  collars;  the  females  in  their  more  mod- 
est, streaked  plumage.  The  dark  Aleutian  rosy  finch 
was  present  in  numbers,  and  some  of  our  party  stumbled 
upon  a  snowy  owl  with  a  family  of  droll  little  owlets. 

Upon  approaching  the  edge  of  the  cliffs  a  wonderful 
scene  lay  below  us.  Some  great  black  splinters  of  rock 
two  hundred  feet  high  stood  out  in  the  water  close  to  the 
shore,  the  waves  dashing  about  their  bases,  while  all  over 
their  sides,  upon  every  ledge,  crowded  the  sea  birds.  Be- 
low us  and  opposite  on  the  precipitous  volcanic  face  of  the 
island  was  an  almost  solid  front  of  birds — mostly  Pallas's 
murres — bustling,  bobbing,  and  bowing,  some  sitting  pas- 
sively upon  their  single  eggs,  and  many  standing,  with  their 
faces  turned  toward  the  rock  wall  which  rose  above  them. 
The  myriads  of  birds  uttering  their  low,  hoarse,  crooning 


HORNED  AND  TUFTED  PUFFINS 


AN    EVENING    ON    HALL    ISLAND  233 

cry  made  a  perfect  tumult  of  sound.  Horned  puffins 
stood  here  and  there,  showing  their  orange-vermilion 
feet,  their  bright-yellow  bills  tipped  with  the  same  orange- 
red,  their  white  breasts  and  faces  and  dark-brown  backs, 
with  a  line  of  black  extending  around  the  face  and  bound- 
ing it.  As  we  looked  over  the  cliffs  we  saw  a  flock  of 
harlequin  ducks  swimming  in  the  water  hundreds  of  feet 
below.  Fulmars  were  flying  about  here  and  there,  and 
one  was  seen  sitting  upon  her  egg  on  a  ledge  of  the  cliff. 

As  I  stood  watching  the  birds,  a  little  paroquet  auklet 
sat  confidingly  close  beside  me  upon  the  cliff.  It  had  a 
red,  snub,  upturned  bill,  gray  feet,  and  a  fine  white  line 
of  feathers  extending  back  of  the  eye.  It  sat  alone  on 
the  rocks  with  its  feet  planted  squarely  upon  the  ground, 
holding  the  body  erect;  its  breast  was  white,  its  back  dark 
grayish-brown  and  its  throat  light  grayish-brown  —  a 
sober  little  fellow  with  a  note  that  seemed  like  a  low, 
trembling,  squeaky  wail.  I  noticed  a  cormorant  with 
conspicuous  white  flank  patches  (probably  the  red-faced 
cormorant)  and  many  kittiwake  gulls.  Another  gull  that 
we  found  here,  for  the  first  time,  was  in  the  purity  of  its  plu- 
mage as  lovely  among  sea  birds  as  the  hyperborean  snow- 
flake  among  land  birds.  Indeed  the  great  Point  Barrow 
gull  is  without  a  trace  of  black  —  the  snowy  whiteness  of 
its  plumage  being  relieved  only  by  the  pale  pearl-blue  of 
its  mantle,  and  by  its  bright-yellow  beak,  spotted  with 
vermilion  near  the  tip  of  the  lower  mandible.  It  is  one 
of  the  noblest  of  sea  birds,  and  the  picture  of  a  creature 
so  lovely  in  such  a  dreary  region,  swinging  about  the  dark 
storm-swept  cliffs  of  Bering  Sea,  riding  upon  waves  and 
air  and  mastering  them,  is  one  that  once  seen  will  long 
haunt  the  memory. 

At  eleven  o'clock  the  steamer  returned  and  we  left  the 
beach,  the  fire  of  driftwood  on  the  shore  still  glowing 
through  the  mist  as  we  rowed  away. 


234 


KEELER 


The  following  day  we  spent  some  hours  exploring  St. 
Matthew  Island.  Its  shores  and  tundras  were  inhabited 
by  the  same  birds,  and  we  discovered  also  two  or  three 
additional  species.  One  of  the  party  shot  an  old-squaw 
duck  and  an  eider,  while  Dr.  Fisher  and  Mr.  Fuertes  se- 
cured specimens  of  the  exquisite  little  Sabine's  gull  —  a 
small  species  with  white  plumage,  slaty-black  hood,  a 
mantle  of  slaty-blue,  and  a  forked  tail.  On  the  tundras 
of  both  islands  the  Pribilof  sandpiper  was  very  common 
and  on  Hall  Island  Dr.  Grinnell  discovered  its  nest  and 
eggs.  It  is  a  fine,  large  species  with  a  reddish  back,  a 
black  patch  on  its  breast,  and  dusky  spots  on  its  cheeks. 
Upon  alighting  beside  a  pool  it  has  a  characteristic  habit 
of  holding  one  wing  straight  up  in  the  air  for  a  moment  as 
if  to  steady  the  body  after  the  momentum  of  flight. 

Upon  leaving  St.  Matthew  Island  we  proceeded  rapidly 
on  our  homeward  way,  and  from  that  time  on  learned 
nothing  of  striking  interest  concerning  the  birds.  Shortly 
alter  leaving  Unalaska  Island  we  observed  a  vast  swarm 
of  Pacific  fulmars  in  dark  plumage  flying  about  the  sur- 
face of  the  water.  They  must  have  numbered  several 
thousand  birds  in  one  compact  flock  and  were  evidently 
attracted  by  a  school  of  fish. 


SABINE    GULL,     XEMA    SABINI 
St.Matthew  Island,  July  15,  1899. 


f*t  Ar         >J"'llt''  b^-yp&i 


0 


JLEGJ5ND 


J     Interior   forest. 
1221    Const  liii-osl 

1  I     f.'.^S.i,..,: 


V 

MAP  or 

ALAS  KA 

SHOWING 

F  O"RE  S  TED      AH  HAS 
BY 

B.  K.  FE 


4—- 


s.s  areas 


.1 | 


FORESTS  OF  ALASKA 

BY  B.  E.   FERNOW 


LASKA  furnishes  a  field  of  unusual  interest  to 
the  student  of  forest  distribution,  and  it  may  be 
worth  while   to   describe    and    discuss,  from 
both    phytographic    and  economic  points    of 
view,  the  forest  conditions   of  the  Territory. 

Alaska  may  be  divided  into  at  least  five  regions,  two 
forested  and  three  forestless,  corresponding  to  climatic 
and  physical  conditions. 

A  true  forest  country  is  found  only  along  the  southern 
coast,  on  the  islands  of  the  Alexander  Archipelago,  and 
in  the  panhandle  of  mainland  separating  the  British 
possessions  from  the  ocean  —  a  northward  extension  of 
the  Pacific  coast  forest.  Here  the  evenly  tempered  climate 
gives  rise  to  forest-covered  slopes  out  of  which  only  the 
higher  elevations  with  their  covering  of  eternal  snow 
reach  above  timber-line. 

Separated  from  this  coast  by  the  high  sierra  of  the  St. 
Elias  and  Fairweather  coast  ranges,  and  by  mountain 
ranges  farther  inland  to  the  north  and  west,  is  the  great 
interior  basin  drained  by  the  Yukon  River,  with  its  hills, 
mountains,  and  plateaus,  which,  while  in  the  main  an  open 
country,  is  studded  with  more  or  less  frequent  islands  of 
forest  growth  varying  in  density  and  development.  The 

(235) 


236  FERNOW 

interesting  fact  to  the  plant  geographer  is  that  the  forest 
flora  of  this  interior  region  is  entirely  different  from  that 
of  the  coast  region,  being  in  its  species  essentially  the  same 
as  our  northeastern  Atlantic  boreal  flora. 

Intervening  between  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  forest 
flora,  is  the  high,  somewhat  triangular-shaped  plateau, 
enclosed  by  the  coast  ranges  and  the  more  northern 
mountains,  some  15,000  square  miles  in  extent  according 
to  I.  C.  Russell,1  a  region  of  absolute,  stern,  silent, 
motionless  winter,  covered  with  snow  and  ice  all  the 
year  round,  without  a  vestige  of  life. 

Again,  skirting  the  coast  of  Bering  Sea  from  Kuskokwim 
Bay  northward  and  along  the  Arctic  Ocean,  is  the  tundra 
—  a  belt  of  treeless  country,  though  not  entirely  devoid  of 
woody  vegetation,  varying  from  a  hundred  miles  or  less 
to  several  hundred  miles  in  width. 

Lastly  we  recognize  as  a  different  type  the  forestless 
region  of  grassy  slopes  and  snow  covered  peaks  which 
the  Alaska  Peninsula  and  the  Aleutian  and  other  islands 
west  of  the  I53d  degree  of  longitude  exhibit. 

To  explain  this  distribution  of  the  arborescent  flora, 
both  climatic  and  physiographic  conditions  must  be  ad- 
duced. It  is  easily  understood  that  the  mechanical  barrier 
which  the  ice-  and  snow-bound  mountain  ranges  interpose 
should  effectively  separate  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  forest 
flora.  But  to  the  westward  toward  the  Alaska  Peninsula 
and  the  Aleutian  and  other  islands  no  such  mechanical 
barrier  exists,  hence  other  causes  must  be  found  to  ex- 
plain the  limits  of  distribution. 

The  separation  of  the  coast  and  interior  floras  seems  in 
general  complete,  although  an  exchange  of  species  may 
occur  here  and  there  across  the  mountain  passes  and 
along  the  river  courses.  Thus,  a  paper-barked  birch  ap- 
pears in  numbers  at  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal,  1,000  feet 

1  Am.  Journal  of  Science,  3d  series,  Vol.  XLIII,  p.  171,  1892. 


ALASKA    FORESTS  237 

above  sea  level,  and  again  at  the  head  of  Cook  Inlet, 
where  the  traders  state  that  birch  canoes  are  used  by 
the  Indians  on  Knik  River,  without  its  apparent  exist- 
ence in  intermediate  localities.  This  distribution  would 
indicate  a  species  from  the  interior  that  has  crossed  the 
range. 

The  associated  occurrence  of  the  eastern  Populus  bal- 
samifera  with  its  western  congener,  Populus  trichocarpa 
(if  indeed  the  two  species  can  be  separated),  reported  by 
the  late  Dr.  G.  M.  Dawson  from  the  Pelly  and  Lewes 
Rivers,  and  observed  by  us  on  Kadiak  Island,  is  an 
example  of  this  interchange,  and  Pinus  contorta  (or 
murrayana)  reported  by  Dall  at  the  confluence  of  the 
above  named  rivers,  furnishes  another  instance  of  wan- 
dering. 

The  greatest  interest  in  regard  to  this  approach  or  inter- 
change of  the  two  floras  would  center  in  the  region  around 
Iliamna  Lake,  at  the  base  of  the  Alaska  Peninsula.  Here 
the  Pacific  coast  flora  finds  its  western  terminus,  and  the 
interior  or  Atlantic  forest  flora  descends  along  the  Mul- 
chatna  and  Nushagak  Rivers  almost  to  the  very  shores  of 
Bering  Sea,  while  the  low  passes  between  Cook  Inlet 
and  Lakes  Clark  and  Iliamna  should  favor  transmigration 
of  the  two  floras,  unless  other  impediments  bar  their 
progress. 

While  in  a  general  way  temperature  and  moisture  con- 
ditions are  certainly  the  most  influential  factors  deter- 
mining the  distribution  of  life  groups,  it  must  be  evident 
that  with  tree  growth,  combinations  of  these  with  factors 
other  than  those  which  determine  the  distribution  of  an- 
nual and  perennial  low  growths,  must  be  potent.  The 
winter  rest  in  the  seed,  and  the  short  cycle  of  develop- 
ment in  a  single  season,  characteristic  of  the  annuals; 
the  partial  death  in  winter,  and  the  low  stature  of  the 
perennials,  warmly  covered  by  the  winter  snows  and  pro- 


238  FERNOW 

tected  against  variations  of  atmospheric  conditions,  give 
an  advantage  to  these  forms  of  life  in  northern  regions 
which  is  lacking  in  the  arborescent  flora,  with  its  persistent 
growth,  its  long  period  of  life  before  maturity  is  reached, 
and  elevation  above  the  ground. 

The  wintry  blasts  which  are  of  no  moment  to  the  her- 
baceous plants  and  shrubs,  must  be  endured  by  the  arbor- 
escent flora  ;  and  late  frosts  in  the  spring,  which  may  find 
the  former  in  condition  for  withstanding  their  blight,  will 
nip  the  tree  buds  which  an  early  warm  spring  sun  has 
called  into  premature  activity. 

Again,  while  the  herbaceous  plant  readily  survives  an 
extraordinarily  unfavorable  season,  and  with  its  prolific 
annual  seed  production  soon  recovers  lost  ground,  the  tree 
individual,  after  having  weathered  many  winters,  may  fall  a 
prey  to  a  single  exceptional  season;  moreover,  seed  pro- 
duction in  the  tree,  coming  only  late  in  life  and  at  longer 
or  shorter  intervals,  is  less  favorable  to  reestablishment. 

Again,  while  the  low  vegetation  is  able  to  subsist  on  a 
modicum  of  soil,  the  tree,  as  it  grows  in  height,  requires 
corresponding  root  space,  both  to  supply  itself  with  water 
and  to  brace  itself  against  the  winds  —  the  leverage 
increasing  with  the  growth.  Soil  conditions  in  the 
competition  between  different  forms  of  vegetation  may 
become  so  important  that  climatic  conditions  are  of 
secondary  moment;  thus  we  find  grass  and  weeds  suc- 
cessfully keeping  out  the  arborescent  flora  where  no 
climatic  impediments  to  the  latter  exist. 

The  combination  of  conditions  influencing  forest  growth 
is  then,  it  must  be  admitted,  more  complex  than  that 
which  determines  the  distribution  of  smaller  plants,  and 
hence  not  only  does  the  composition  of  the  forest  vary 
according  to  the  adaptability  of  the  species,  but  at  the 
same  time  the  individual  development  and  density  of 
stand  vary  with  the  different  conditions. 


LUPINES    ON  WOOD    ISLAND 


Gi  LBD   X.    CD 


WOOD   ISLAND,   NEAR  KADIAK. 


THE    INTERIOR    FOREST  239 

These  general  considerations  will  assist  in  understand- 
ing the  variety  and  changes  in  appearance  of  the  Alaska 
forest  flora. 

THE    INTERIOR    FOREST. 

The  interior  of  Alaska  is  but  little  known,  and  as  a 
rule  only  along  the  river  courses.  A  few  cross-country 
routes  have  been  traversed  by  explorers  who,  not  being 
botanists,  leave  us  in  doubt  as  to  the  exact  species  repre- 
sented in  their  casual  remarks  on  the  forest  conditions. 
They  generally  mention  spruce  as  the  only  conifer,  and 
cottonwood,  aspen,  birch,  willow,  and  alder,  as  the  decid- 
uous-leaved species.  The  reference  to  fir  and  hemlock, 
as  occurring  in  the  Yukon  district,  made  by  W.  C.  Green- 
field in  the  Census  volume  of  1890,  is  probably  an  error. 
So  probably  is  Dr.  C.  W.  Hayes1  in  error,  when,  in 
contrasting  the  vegetation  of  the  Yukon  with  that  of 
the  coast,  he  says:  "This  contrast  consists  more  in 
the  amount  of  vegetation  than  in  the  difference  of 
species." 

The  account  in  the  ninth  volume  of  the  Tenth  Census 
of  the  '  Northern  Forest  of  the  Pacific  Region'  (p.  7)  is 
extremely  vague,  and  in  the  light  of  newer  information, 
faulty;  but  it  attempts  at  least  to  designate  the  species 
found.  The  statement  is  as  follows: 

"  The  white  spruce,2  the  most  important  and  most  north- 
ern species  of  the  North  Atlantic  region,  is  here  also  the 
most  important  species.  It  attains  a  considerable  size  as 
far  north  as  the  sixty-fifth  degree,  forming  in  the  valley 
of  the  Yukon,  forests  of  no  little  local  importance.  The 
canoe-birch,3  the  balsam  poplar,4  and  the  aspen,6  familiar 

*Nat.  Geog.  Mag.,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  136,  1892. 
2Picea  canadensis  (Mill.)  B.S.P. 
3  Betula  papyrifera  Marsh. 
*Populus  balsamifera  Linn. 
6Populus  tremuloides  Michx. 


240  FERNOW 

trees  of  the  North  Atlantic  region,  also  occur  here.  The 
gray  pine  and  the  balsam  fir  of  the  Atlantic  region  are 
replaced  by  allied  forms  of  the  same  genera.  The  larch 
alone,  of  the  denizens  of  the  extreme  northern  forest  of 
the  Atlantic  coast,  finds  no  congener  here  in  the  northern 
Pacific  forest." 

These  determinations  of  species  we  may  accept  for  the 
spruce,  birch,  poplar  and  aspen  of  the  interior  forest  flora 
of  Alaska,  but  the  occurrence  of  pine  and  fir  seems  very 
doubtful,  although  Pinus  contort  a  approaches  the  boun- 
dary from  the  British  possessions,  and  Abies  lasiocarpa 
was  found  at  the  top  of  White  Pass  and  may  be  found  at 
timber-line  elsewhere  in  the  interior. 

From  the  accounts  of  all  explorers,  it  appears  that  the 
interior  is  in  general  an  open  plateau,  hill,  and  mountain 
country,  mostly  moss-covered  and  devoid  of  trees ;  but  with 
scattered  more  or  less  open  groves  on  the  lower  hill  slopes 
and  ridges,  and  in  some  of  the  valleys  (White  River 
basin1),  the  trees  usually  crowding  together  more  densely 
along  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes  and  covering  with 
dense  thickets  the  many  islands  in  the  rivers.  In  some 
localities  the  heads  of  all  the  streams  are  surrounded  by 
timber;  Lieut.  Henry  T.  Allen  reports  that  his  camp  on 
the  Tozikakat  River 1  "  was  in  a  grove  of  larger  timber 
than  any  seen  since  leaving  the  Yukon;  one  tree  was 
nearly  two  feet  in  diameter";  and  at  another  place  he 
mentions  the  use  of  a  spruce  for  a  bridge  over  a  river  forty 
feet  in  width. 

While  the  trees  are  mostly  short,  poorly  developed, 
dwarfed,  and  standing  in  open  positions,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  timber  is  knotty  and  checked  by  frost,  these 
groves  occasionally  assume  a  real  forest  character  and 
contain  trees  developed  to  good  size.  Local  conditions 
of  soil,  and  of  shelter  from  the  winds,  seem  to  be  largely 

•Allen:  Reconnaissance  in  Alaska,  1887. 


THE    INTERIOR    FOREST  241 

influential  in  this  difference  of  development.  The  follow- 
ing statement  is  from  the  Eleventh  Census: 

"  The  whole  Nushagak  River  valley,  including  Tikchik 
River  and  Lake,  is  densely  wooded  with  trees  not  more 
than  a  foot  in  diameter,  until  the  distance  from  the  coast 
and  intervening  natural  obstacles  protect  the  vegetation 
from  the  blighting  ice-laden  Siberian  storms,  which, 
though  not  so  low  in  temperature  as  the  interior  blizzards, 
are  yet  by  far  more  dangerous,  on  account  of  their  humid- 
ity, to  animal  and  vegetable  life.  Then  the  diameter  of 
the  trees  and  the  density  of  the  primeval  forest  increase 
rapidly,  so  that  on  the  Mulchatna  and  the  Kokhtuli  (For- 
est) Rivers  exceptionally  large  trees  may  be  found  in 
number.  On  my  last  winter's  exploring  journey  I  meas- 
ured in  a  Kokhtuli  spruce  grove  nine  trees,  each  of  which 
was  over  three  feet  in  diameter."1 

In  Norton  Bay,  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  the  sea, 
groves  of  spruce  grow  thickly,  but  the  height  of  the  trees 
never  exceeds  forty  feet,  and  the  diameter  from  six  to  ten 
inches;  and  along  the  banks  of  the  Tanana  River  Lieu- 
tenant Allen  reports  that  most  of  the  spruce  range  from 
three  to  eight  inches  in  diameter.  This  dwarfed  condition 
may  in  some  parts  be  accounted  for  by  altitude. 

In  mountainous  parts,  as  is  well  known,  dwarfed  trees 
occur  at  high  elevations.  In  this  connection  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  the  altitude  of  timber-line  is  higher  in 
the  interior  than  on  the  coast.  On  the  coast  it  varies  from 
i, 800  to  2,400  feet,  while  in  the  interior  it  has  been  found 
as  high  as  4,000  feet.  And  even  in  latitude  68°  N.,  J.  H. 
Turner,2  who  made  a  journey  northward  along  the  bound- 
ary line  from  Rampart  House  on  Porcupine  River,  found, 
at  an  altitude  of  2,500  feet  and  "  extending  eastward  to  the 
furthest  horizon,  a  plain,  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of 

1  Eleventh  Census  :  Population  and  Resources  of  Alaska,  p.  92,  1893. 
*  National  Geographic  Magazine,  Vol.  IV,  p.  196,  1893. 


242  FERNOW 

spruce,  birch,  and  cottonwood  —  a  veritable  oasis  in  the 
midst  of  utter  desolation." 

While  certain  mountains  may  limit  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  this  interior  forest  region,  the  western  limit  of  tree 
growth  follows  a  line  between  the  i6ist  and  i6$d  degrees 
of  longitude,  from  Nushagak  River  to  Golofnin  Bay  in 
Norton  Sound,  then  turning  northeasterly  to  the  Keewalik 
River  and  the  hills  to  the  west  of  Noatak  River  and  (  at 
about  the  6yth  degree  of  latitude)  changing  to  eastward 
and  following  the  watershed  of  the  Kowak  River  to  its 
headwaters,  when  it  assumes  the  northeasterly  direction 
of  the  Endicott  Mountains  along  the  watershed  of  the 
Colville  River  to  the  low  mountain  ranges  which  skirt  the 
Arctic  Ocean  within  twenty-five  miles  of  the  coast,  as  far 
east  as  the  Mackenzie  River,  where,  between  the  69th 
and  7oth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  the  northernmost 
tree  growth  occurs.  Timber  is  said  to  abound  on  the 
dividing  ridges  of  the  interior,  between  Colville  River 
and  the  British  possessions.1 

The  open  and  stunted  character  of  the  tree  growth, 
which  is  so  general,  may  be  in  part  a  result  of  the  com- 
paratively dry  climate  —  for  this  region,  while  blessed 
with  an  abundant  snowfall  (eight  to  fifteen  feet),  suffers 
from  droughty  summers  (rainfall  about  thirteen  inches). 
In  summer,  the  temperature  is  said  to  exceed  112°  Fahr. 
in  the  shade,  while  in  winter  it  has  been  known  to  fall  to 
—  60°  and  lower,  a  range  of  over  170  degrees.  The  dis- 
tribution of  forest  areas  is  probably  also  largely  influenced 
by  soil  or  drainage  conditions :  "  The  entire  face  of  the 
country  is  covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of  moss  and 
lichens,  nearly  as  thoroughly  saturated  as  a  wet  sponge, 
which  remains  soggy  and  cold  until  late  into  summer,  and 
even  on  slopes  the  water  drains  off  but  slowly,  while  a 

1H.  D.  Woolfe,  in  Eleventh  Census:  Population  and  resources  of  Alaska, 
p-  134.  l893- 


ALASKA    FORESTS  243 

few  inches  below  this  cover  is  a  bed  of  rock  or  ice  or 
frozen  ground  which  thaws  only  for  a  foot  or  two  in  sum- 
mer and  prevents  the  water  from  sinking."  The  oppor- 
tunities for  tree  seeds  to  sprout  are,  therefore,  found  only 
here  and  there  on  the  better  drained  slopes  and  on  the 
alluvial  sands  of  river  bottoms  and  islands. 

The  lowlands  which  skirt  Bering  Sea  and  the  Arctic 
Ocean  exhibit  this  inimical  condition  of  soil,  which  is 
sufficient  to  explain  the  absence  of  tree  growth;  but  here 
additional  causes  may  be  found  in  the  absence  of  protec- 
tion from  the  icy  winter  blasts,  and  perhaps  in  a  defi- 
ciency of  summer  rains,  for,  although  the  atmosphere  is 
humid,  the  low  tundras  furnish  no  causes  for  condensation. 

The  peculiarity  which  seems  in  general  to  characterize 
the  Arctic  flora,  namely,  the  appearance  of  species  in 
groups  or  islands,  attaches  also  to  the  forest  cover,  for  the 
forest  is  not  always  mixed,  but  groves  of  one  species  by 
itself  are  frequent.  Numerically  the  spruce  would  appear 
the  commonest,  the  birch  the  rarest  tree. 

The  economic  importance  of  these  limited  forest  areas 
is  growing  with  the  development  of  the  mining  industry. 
Not  only  must  the  scanty  resources  be  drawn  upon  for 
fuel  to  keep  the  houses  warm,  and  to  run  the  steamboats 
and  machinery,  but  the  advantageous  working  of  the 
placers  requires  the  use  of  fire  in  thawing  the  frozen 
ground.  Yet  the  usual  carelessness  and  recklessness 
which  characterize  pioneering  has  already  shown  itself 
in  the  destruction  of  considerable  areas  by  fire.  It  is  said 
that  around  Lake  Lindeman,  nearly  all  the  timber  is 
burned  off,  none  suitable  for  boat  building  being  left. 

Lieutenant  Allen  reports  burnt  spruce  in  various  lo- 
calities and  speaks  of  the  "  heavy  smoke  caused  by  the 
extensive  timber  fires  which  obscured  the  sun  the  entire 
day."  In  this  case  it  was  the  signal  fires  of  the  Indians 
which  were  the  cause. 


244  FERNOW 

THE    COAST    FOREST. 

Entirely  different  in  composition,  manner  of  distribu- 
tion, and  development  is  the  coast  forest — a  result  of  the 
widely  different  character  of  the  climate  it  enjoys. 

This  forest  is  an  extension  of  the  coast  forest  of  Wash- 
ington and  British  Columbia,  but  as  it  pushes  northward  it 
gradually  loses  some  of  its  species  and  deteriorates  in  indi- 
vidual development.  It  covers  the  many  islands  of  the 
Alexander  Archipelago  and  the  panhandle  along  the  main 
coast  as  far  as  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal  (only  the  steeper 
and  higher  slopes  remaining  bare)  and  skirts  the  shore  from 
Cape  Spencer  westward  with  a  narrow  belt,  rarely  over 
ten  miles  in  width,  along  the  foot  of  the  snowy  Fair- 
weather  and  Mount  St.  Elias  ranges,  following  up  the 
valley  of  the  Copper  River,  surrounding  the  shores  of 
Prince  William  Sound  and  Cook  Inlet,  covering  Afognak, 
Spruce,  and  other  neighboring  islands,  and  coming  to  a 
rather  abrupt  termination  on  the  north  shore  of  Kadiak 
Island.  Here  groves  of  spruce  are  restricted  to  the 
lower  shore  lands  and  sheltered  localities.  Ugak  Bay  on 
the  east,  and  Cape  Uganuk  on  the  west  side  of  the  island, 
are  the  farthest  western  and  southern  points  of  forest 
growth.  Similar  groves  in  similar  situations  occur  on 
the  Alaska  Peninsula  around  Kukak  Bay. 

There  is  some  evidence  that  this  western  limit  is  not, 
or  may  not  remain,  stable  —  that  the  spruce  has  wandered 
in  recent  times,  and  may  still  wander.  There  is  also  evi- 
dence that  the  treeless  country  beyond,  made  up  of  the 
Alaska  Peninsula  and  Aleutian  Islands,  is  not  incapable 
of  growing  trees. 

An  interesting  evidence  of  the  progress  of  the  spruce 
may  be  seen  on  Long  Island,  a  few  miles  east  of  Kadiak, 
where  an  extensive  spruce  grove  has  established  itself 
within  the  last  century.  Many  trees  had  been  freshly  cut, 


ALASKA    FORESTS  245 

and  a  count  of  the  rings  showed  none  older  than  ninety  or 
a  hundred  years,  while  on  Kadiak  and  Wood  Islands  the 
oldest  growth  was  found  to  be  between  125  and  150  years, 
with  some  few  rotten  stumps  possibly  older.  This  differ- 
ence in  age  of  entire  groves  so  near  together  allows  the 
inference  that  the  older  has  furnished  the  seed  for  the 
younger,  and  that  the  spruce  has  wandered  from  Kadiak 
to  Long  Island. 

This  suggests  another  influential  factor  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  trees,  namely  the  winds  as  carriers  of  seed:  not 
only  the  direction  of  the  wind  but  the  character  of  the 
weather  accompanying  it  influence  this  distribution.  In 
wet  weather  the  cones  close;  it  is  only  in  dry  weather  that 
they  open  and  release  the  seed.  To  secure  the  southwest 
extension  of  trees  along  the  Alaska  Peninsula,  it  would  be 
necessary  that,  after  the  ripening  of  the  seeds  and  during 
their  release  from  the  cones,  which  takes  place  gradually 
through  the  winter,  the  winds  should  be  dry  and  blow 
from  the  north  and  east.  But  the  contrary  usually  hap- 
pens, for  from  September  to  May  there  is  a  constant  suc- 
cession of  southeast  and  south  winds,  and  the  air  is  heavily 
charged  with  moisture.  For  this  reason  the  spread  of  the 
species  is  at  least  retarded,  and  only  when,  as  may  occa- 
sionally happen,  favorable  wind  direction  at  the  right  time 
coincides  with  a  seed  year,  is  progress  possible.  That 
seed  production  as  far  west  as  Kadiak  can  be  most  prolific 
was  evidenced  by  an  enormous  crop  of  cones  which 
ripened  in  1898,  turned  brown,  and  remaining  on  the 
branches  in  the  summer  of  1899,  gave  the  trees  at  a  dis- 
tance the  appearance  of  having  been  killed  by  fire.  How 
much  of  this  seed  is  good  and  capable  of  germination,  and 
how  often  seed  years  occur  could  not  be  ascertained. 

That  trees  can  at  least  exist  farther  west,  on  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands,  is  proved  by  a  few  scattered  spruces  at 
Unalaska,  planted  by  a  Russian  priest  in  the  year  1805. 


246  FERNOW 

One  group  of  twelve  and  another  of  seven  remain;  the 
trees  are  short  and  slowly  grown,  to  be  sure,  but  vigorous 
and  in  good  health,  except  where  fire  has  damaged  some 
of  them.  At  the  time  of  our  visit  the  largest  measured 
twenty-four  inches,  the  smallest,  six  inches  in  diameter, 
while  all  were  of  the  same  height,  twenty-five  to  thirty 
feet.  The  trees  had  been  fruiting  heavily  the  year  before, 
and  two  smaller  ones  at  a  distance  were  undoubtedly  the 
result  of  an  earlier  seed  year.  Evidently  the  chances  of 
natural  propagation  in  competition  with  the  heavy  growth 
of  grass  and  weeds,  with  a  late  spring,  short  summer,  and 
cold  winds  are  small,  even  if  ample  sources  of  seed  sup- 
ply were  within  reach. 

The  even  tempered,  moist  climate  which  the  islands  of 
the  Alexander  Archipelago  and  the  western  and  southern 
coasts  enjoy,  accounts  for  their  luxuriant  forest  cover  of 
conifers.  Luxuriance,  however,  is  a  relative  term,  for 
while  undoubtedly  the  vegetation,  including  the  under- 
shrubs  and  moss  which  cover  the  ground,  is  rank,  the  de- 
velopment of  the  trees,  as  we  shall  see  further  on,  is  by  no 
means  comparable  with  the  matchless  growth  around 
Puget  Sound,  nor  is  the  variety  of  species  as  great. 

The  Alaska  forest  lacks  the  most  important  timber  of 
the  Pacific  coast,  the  red  fir  or  Douglas  spruce  (JPseu- 
dotsuga  taxifolia)  whose  northernmost  specimens  were 
observed  on  Princess  Royal  Island.  It  lacks  the  pines, 
with  the  exception  of  the  inferior  Pinus  contorta,  which 
here  and  there  occupies  swampy  and  dry,  gravelly  situa- 
tions. None  of  the  magnificent  firs  of  the  Sierra  and  Coast 
ranges  are  to  be  met,  the  northernmost  specimens  of 
Abies  amabilis,  usually  a  tree  of  high  elevations,  being 
found  on  Lowe  Inlet,  at  the  very  shore,  though  still  in 
superior  form.  The  small  Abies  lasiocarpa  in  dwarfed 
specimens,  remains  the  only  timber-line  tree  at  White 
Pass,  which  it  has  reached,  perhaps,  from  the  interior. 


'THE    FOREST"  UNALASKA. 


(ONLY 


THESE    WERE   PLANTED    EARLV    IN  THE    CENTUKV.) 


TREES   ON  KADIAK  ISLAND 


THE    COAST    FOREST  247 

The  giant  arborvitae  or  red  cedar  {Thuja  plicata)^  to 
be  sure,  enters  this  territory,  but  only  in  small  numbers, 
and  is  soon  lost,  not  occurring  farther  north  than  Prince 
of  Wales  Island,  although  on  the  inside  passage  it  was 
observed  at  Wrangell. 

The  Alaska  or  yellow  cedar  (  Chamaecyparis  nootka- 
tensis),  which  in  Sargent's  Silva  is  reported  not  farther 
west  than  Yakutat  Bay,  appears  to  exist  in  a  few  isolated 
localities  on  Prince  William  Sound.  The  stations  were 
not  actually  visited,  but  evidence  of  their  existence  was 
found  in  the  wood  and  bark  used  in  buildings  of  an  Aleut 
village  at  the  foot  of  Copper  Mountain,  and  also  in  the 
information  furnished  by  traders  that  limited  numbers  of 
this  species  are  to  be  found  on  Hawkins  Island,  six  or 
seven  miles  from  Orca,  on  Glacier  Island,  opposite  Co- 
lumbia Glacier,  and  in  a  few  other  confined  localities. 
This  tree,  although  deriving  its  name  from  the  country,  is 
really  only  sparingly  represented  in  localized  aggrega- 
tions or  clumps,  occupying  especially  southern  mountain 
slopes  from  the  shore  to  the  very  tops.  It  furnishes  the 
beautiful,  fine-grained,  yellow-tinted  wood  which  the 
Indians  use  for  their  carvings,  totem  poles,  paddles,  and 
so  on.  The  Oregon  alder  (Alnus  oregona)  was  found 
abundantly  as  far  as  the  foot  of  La  Perouse  Glacier,  a  little 
south  of  Mt.  Fairweather,  but  was  entirely  absent  at 
Yakutat  Bay  and  farther  west. 

Excepting,  then,  the  more  or  less  sporadic  occurrence 
of  species  mentioned,  the  composition  of  the  forest  is 
simple  indeed,  for  the  bulk  is  made  up  of  a  mixture  of  two 
species,  the  tideland  or  Sitka  spruce  {Picea  sitchensis) 
and  the  coast  hemlock  {Tsuga  heterophy //#),  to  which 
may  be  added,  near  timber-line  and  farther  west  on  the 
lower  levels,  the  interesting  and  beautiful  Alpine  hemlock 
{Tsuga  mertensiana). 

Numerically,  the  coast  hemlock  seems  to  be  the  most 


248 


FERNOW 


common  species,  forming  usually  from  70  to  80  percent 
of  the  mixture,  the  spruce  only  occasionally  preponderat- 
ing, especially  along  water  courses  and  on  newly  forested 
moraines,  until  the  western  limit  of  the  hemlock  is 
reached  at  Prince  William  Sound.  Even  here  the  hem- 
lock remains  a  prominent  component.  Farther  west, 
however,  the  spruce  alone  continues  to  form  forests  or 
open  groves,  as  on  the  shores  of  Cook  Inlet  and  Kadiak 
Island. 

This  sombre  mixed  forest  of  hemlock  and  spruce  covers 
with  a  more  or  less  dense  stand  the  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tainous islands  and  the  shores  of  the  Archipelago  up  to 
timber-line,  which  varies  from  1,800  to  2,400  feet  near  the 

shore,  but  towards  the  inte- 
rior gradually  ascends  with 
the  snow-line  in  protected 


inland 


passes. 


like    Taku 


Pass,  to  over  5,000  feet.1 

The  stand  is  usually  not 
so  dense  as  would  be  desir- 
able to  make  the  clean,  long 
boles  which  furnish  the  best 
logs.  Indeed,  while  individ- 
ual development  reminds  us 
occasionally  of  the  giants  of 
the  Puget  Sound  country, 
while  spruces  six  feet  in 
diameter  and  175  feet  in 
height  were  found  at  Sitka, 
and  while  even  as  far  west 
as  Prince  William  Sound 
diameters  of  over  five  feet  with  heights  of  150  feet 
were  measured,  the  branchy  trunks  offer  little  induce- 
ment to  the  lumberman.  Only  in  some  favored  situations 

'C.  W.  Hayes,  in  National  Geographic  Magazine,  Vol.  IV,  p.  137,  1892. 


FOREST   NEAR   SITKA. 


RIVER 


THE    COAST    FOREST  249 

is  the  growth  denser,  the  boles  less  tapering  and  cleaner 
of  branches,  and  less  knotty. 

This  generally  undesirable  development,  due  to  open 
stand,  is  probably  caused  less  by  climate  than  by  soil. 
The  soil  overlying  the  rocks  of  the  rugged  slopes  is 
scanty,  and  becomes  more  and  more  so  as  we  go 
north,  until  finally  only  the  muck  of  decayed  moss  and 
other  vegetation  furnishes  a  foothold  for  the  trees.  In 
consequence,  fallen  timber  frequently  makes  travel  im- 
possible. 

The  underbrush  and  lower  vegetation  is  often  dense 
and  luxuriant,  comprising  species  of  Vaccinium,  Rubus, 
Ribes,  Menziesia  and  the  spiny  Echinopanax  horridum, 
which  was  found  as  far  north  as  Point  Gustavus  in  Glacier 
Bay.  A  heavy  cover  of  moss  hides  the  mucky  soil,  which 
is  wet  probably  all  the  year. 

Now  and  then  swamps  occur,  which,  so  far  as  tree 
growth  is  concerned,  show  only  dwarfed  specimens  of 
Pinus  contorta,  or  possibly  of  hemlocks.  Along  the  shores 
and  in  the  river  bottoms  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs 
relieve  the  monotony  of  the  evergreens,  among  which 
occasional  clumps  of  Pyrus  rivularis,  Sambucus  pubens, 
Sorbus  sambucifolia,  and  Viburnum  pauciflorum  and  in 
the  lower  latitudes  Oregon  alder  are  observed.  Cot- 
tonwoods  (Populus  trichocarpa  and  balsamifera)  form 
groves  on  the  flats  as  far  west  as  Kadiak  Island,  and  wil- 
lows, shrubby  and  in  tree  form  (Sah'x  sitchensis  and  alax- 
ensis),  fringe  the  water  courses;  and  whatever  other 
space  is  left  open,  high  or  low,  wet  or  dry,  is  at  once  oc- 
cupied by  the  ubiquitous  shrubby  alder  (Alnus  sinuata) 
with  its  many  stout  stems  forming  impenetrable  thickets. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  examples  of  the  evolution 
of  a  forest  growth  in  progress,  which  the  writer  had  the 
opportunity  to  study,  was  found  in  Glacier  Bay.  The 
peninsula  known  as  Point  Gustavus  which  juts  out  from 


250  FERNOW 

the  mainland  about  twenty  miles  below  Muir  Glacier  is 
formed  by  the  moraines  of  the  receding  glacier,  old 
enough  to  be  diversified  into  a  maze  of  hills  and  valleys, 
the  top  varying  from  dry,  coarse  gravel  to  pure  sand  and 
finer  silt  towards  the  point.  The  interior  portions,  mostly 
in  the  nature  of  sand  dunes  cut  through  by  low,  swampy 
places  and  occasional  clear  rivulets,  are  more  or  less 
without  vegetation,  at  least  without  forest  growth,  except 
on  the  compacter  gravels,  where  Pinus  contort  a  has 
established  itself  in  open  growth. 

Along  the  shores,  however,  is  a  belt  of  varying  width, 
consisting  of  a  dense  growth  of  spruce  with  an  occasional 
and  poorly  developed  hemlock  (  Tsuga  heterophylla]  or 
balsam  poplar,  while  the  shrubby  alder  and  willows  occupy 
ravines  and  draws,  and  line  the  skirts  of  the  spruce  forest. 
The  soil  under  the  spruces  is  densely  covered  with  a 
heavy  carpet  of  mosses  among  which  three  or  four  species 
are  prominent,  with  the  pretty  Listera,  the  constant  com- 
panion of  the  shady  spruce,  and  a  Pyrola  which  grows 
in  the  darkest  corners,  while  a  Vaccinium  and  the  brake 
{Pteris  aquilina)  occupy  the  more  open  places.  Be- 
sides these,  species  of  Ribes,  Viburnum^  Sambucus, 
Streptopus,  Lycopodium,  Aruncus,  and  the  prickly 
Echinopanax  are  present. 

This  spruce  forest,  as  can  be  readily  ascertained  by 
counting  the  internodes  and  the  annual  rings  of  a  few  cut 
trees,  is  all  between  forty  and  fifty  years  old.  The  largest 
trees  are  as  much  as  thirty-six  inches  in  diameter  and 
eighty  feet  in  height,  showing  the  remarkable  rapidity  of 
growth  which  characterizes  the  tideland  spruce. 

The  history  of  the  evolution  of  this  forest  and  of  the 
recovery  of  the  ground  by  vegetation  is  written  in  clear 
language.  First  the  rough  gravel  of  the  moraine  was 
colonized  by  the  prostrate  willows  and  the  Equisetum 
and  Epilobium  that  grow  on  the  moraine  in  front  of 


THE    COAST    FOREST  251 

Muir  Glacier;  with  these  soon  appeared  the  ubiquitous 
shrubby  alder  (Alnus  sinuata)  and  the  feather-seeded 
balm  of  Gilead,  which,  as  they  grew  in  height,  crowded  out 
the  light-needing  willows;  then,  some  forty  or  fifty  years 
ago,  a  good  seed  year  occurred  in  some  neighboring  forest 
on  the  mainland,  together  with  favorable  wind  conditions, 
and  at  least  the  margin  of  the  thicket  of  alders  and 
cottonwoods  was  sown  to  spruce.  This  shade-enduring, 
yet  rapid-growing  and  persistent  species  soon  attained  the 
height  of  the  low  alders  and  shut  in  and  finally  killed  the 
light-needing  cottonwoods,  leaving  only  their  dead  and 
decaying  stumps  and  trunks  as  witnesses  of  their  former 
occupancy  of  the  soil.  Here  and  there  a  cottonwood  has 
persisted  with  its  crown  still  in  the  sunlight  —  a  tall, 
slender  pole,  clean  of  branches  —  showing  in  the  narrow 
rings  of  the  last  years'  growth  that  it  is  doomed  soon  to 
succumb  to  its  stronger  neighbor. 

Meanwhile,  this  fringe  of  spruces  forms  an  effectual 
barrier  to  the  dissemination  of  seeds  in  the  interior  from 
outside  sources  and  the  light-needing  species  already 
there  will  remain  in  undisturbed  possession  until  the 
spruces  of  the  Point  itself  begin  to  bear  seed  freely; 
finally,  however,  they  must  succumb  to  the  more  persist- 
ent and  shade-enduring  spruce  and  hemlock,  except  where 
soil  conditions  are  too  unfavorable  for  these  species.  Yet, 
after  their  dominion  is  established,  should  the  glacier 
again  advance,  the  same  catastrophe  may  overcome  the 
victors  as  is  revealed  near  Muir  Glacier,  in  the  uncover- 
ing of  a  buried  forest,  established  uncounted  ages  ago  at 
a  different  stage  of  glacial  development — a  catastrophe, 
the  possibility  of  which  is  exemplified  in  many  places, 
where  the  push  moraines  are  crowding  upon  the  forest. 

Of  the  many  other  interesting  observations  on  local  dis- 
tribution and  the  relation  of  tree  growth  to  soil,  only  two 
may  be  noted.  The  first  refers  to  the  presence  of  trees 


252  FERNOW 

in  close  proximity  to  some  of  the  great  glaciers,  showing 
an  astonishing  indifference  to  the  influence  of  the  near-by 
ice  masses.  Not  only  do  the  trees,  wherever  soil  con- 
ditions permit,  grow  close  to  the  icy  river,  attaining  (as 
a  measurement  within  one  hundred  yards  of  LaPerouse 
Glacier  showed)  diameters  of  five  feet  and  heights  of 
150  feet,  but  in  places  they  even  encroach  upon  the  icy 
field,  when  this  has  come  to  rest  and  has  a  scanty  cover 
of  soil  from  the  moraine  material,  upon  which  vegeta- 
tion can  establish  itself.  Thus,  at  the  foot  of  Lucia  Gla- 
cier, on  Yakutat  Bay,  the  stream  which  runs  in  a  wild 
torrent  from  the  glacier  has  cut  a  veritable  canyon1  through 
the  ice,  exposing  an  ice  bank  over  one  hundred  feet  in 
height.  This  ice  is  overlaid  with  moraine  material  a 
foot  or  more  in  depth,  and  this  is  sufficient  to  support  a 
dense  cover,  not  only  of  herbaceous,  but  of  woody  vege- 
tation—  a  thicket  of  the  ever-present  alder,  with  occa- 
sional willows ;  and  even  spruces  do  not  find  the  substratum 
too  cold.  As  the  ice  melts  at  the  border,  the  soil  and  its 
occupants  may  be  seen  from  time  to  time  tumbling  down 
into  the  stream,  or  else  into  the  deep  potholes  with  which 
we  find  this  ice  plateau  amply  provided. 

The  other  observation  which  I  desire  to  record  refers  to 
an  example  of  the  substitution  of  soil  conditions  for  cli- 
matic conditions. 

The  beautiful  Alpine  hemlock  {Tsuga  mertensiana), 
the  embodiment  of  unyielding  perseverance,  is  par  excel- 
lence the  tree  at  timber-line  throughout  the  Cascade  and 
Sierra  Nevada  ranges ;  we  do  not  expect  to  find  it  except 
in  the  humid-cold  atmosphere  of  high  elevations,  battling 
with  the  storms  in  ice  and  snow.  That  single  specimens 
should  occasionally  find  their  way  down  among  the  vegeta- 
tion of  lower  levels,  as  at  Hot  Springs,  near  Sitka,  does 

1  See  I.  C.  Russell's  full  description  in  National  Geographic  Magazine,  Vol. 
Ill,  pp.  176-185,  1891. 


ALASKA    FORESTS  253 

not  astonish  us;  but  when,  as  in  Prince  William  Sound,  it 
becomes,  as  observed  in  some  localities,  the  prominent  tree 
at  the  seashore,  supplanting  the  coast  hemlock,  we  look 
for  an  explanation  other  than  accident,  especially  as  the 
coast  hemlock  is  by  no  means  absent  from  the  slopes,  nor 
the  Alpine  hemlock  from  the  timber  limit,  which  is  here 
above  2,200  feet.  At  Gladhough  Bay  as  usual  the  typical 
spruce  and  coast  hemlock  forest  covers  the  slopes,  and  at 
the  timber-line,  as  usual,  the  Alpine  hemlock  first  sup- 
plants the  coast  hemlock  and  then  becomes  sole  ruler. 
But  at  the  base,  near  the  seashore,  is  found  an  interesting 
feature  in  the  openings  occupied  by  sloping  bogs,  in  which 
the  water  stands  in  pools  and  only  slowly  drains  through 
the  heavy  moss  and  grass  cover  to  the  sea  level.  The 
character  of  this  ground  may  appear  from  the  enumera- 
tion of  a  few  of  the  most  common  plants:  among  Cari- 
ces,  Juncus,  and  Equisetum  we  find  Menyanthes  trifoli- 
ata  and  cristagalli,  Geum  calthiflorum,  and  Phyllodoce 
glanduliflora,  besides  Drosera,  Iris,  Dodecatheon,  and 
Myrica  gale,  the  latter  being  the  most  common  shrub. 

In  this  wet,  cold  soil,  the  Alpine  hemlock  evidently  has 
an  advantage  over  its  congener,  which,  although  not  en- 
tirely absent,  shows  in  its  development  its  antipathy  to 
this  kind  of  feeding  ground. 

ECONOMIC    ASPECTS. 

This  forest  of  Alaska  has  often  been  referred  to  as  a 
great  resource  of  wood  materials,  on  which  the  people  of 
the  United  States  could  fall  back  when  the  virgin  supplies 
of  the  home  country  might  become  exhausted,  and  glow- 
ing accounts  of  the  magnificence  of  this  reserve  have  been 
given.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  this  forest  growth  occu- 
pies a  considerable  area,  probably  not  less  than  twenty  to 
thirty  thousand  square  miles,  but  it  is  of  a  character  which 
makes  the  prospect  of  reliance  upon  its  stores  by  no  means 


254  FERNOW 

cheerful;  for,  while  in  certain  favored  spots  good  enough 
material  can  be  secured,  most  of  this  material  is  not  of  a 
superior  quality,  and  the  larger  portion  of  the  area  does 
not  contain  trees  fit  for  lumber. 

Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  two  cedars,  which  are 
found  only  in  limited  quantities  and  will  soon  be  exhausted, 
the  other  two  species,  spruce  and  hemlock,  are,  by  their 
nature,  not  capable  of  furnishing  high  class  lumber.  The 
hemlock  furnishes  a  material  which  would  answer  very 
well  for  house-finishing  purposes,  but  it  is  objected  to  be- 
cause it  is  difficult  to  work  and  has  the  bad  reputation  of 
its  eastern  congener,  which  the  writer  believes  it  does  not 
deserve.  Enormous  quantities,  too,  of  far  superior  de- 
velopment are  now  going  to  waste  in  the  forests  around 
Puget  Sound,  because  its  value  is  not  known  or  appre- 
ciated in  the  market.  The  spruce,  being  a  rapidly-grown, 
coarse-grained  wood,  even  where  it  is  best  developed  on 
the  Oregon  coast,  makes  indifferent  lumber,  fit  only  for 
packing  cases,  boxes,  and  common  building  material,  un- 
desirable as  long  as  better  material  can  be  had. 

In  addition  to  the  small  value  of  these  woods  and  their 
comparatively  unsatisfactory  development,  the  conditions 
under  which  lumbering  on  the  rugged  slopes  would  have 
to  be  carried  on  are  extremely  difficult;  add  to  these  de- 
tractions the  distance  from  market,  and  we  may  readily 
see  the  reasons  why  this  reserve  will,  for  an  indefinite 
time,  be  left  untouched  except  for  local  use. 

So  unfavorable  is  the  combination  of  conditions,  natural 
and  economic,  at  present,  that  it  pays  to  import  lumber 
from  the  Puget  Sound  country  or  other  points  of  the  lower 
coast.  The  builders  of  the  Yukon  and  White  Pass  railroad 
across  White  Pass  found  it  to  their  advantage  to  import 
the  railroad  ties,  as  well  as  all  trestle  and  bridge  timbers, 
although  the  road  passes  through  a  forested  country;  and 
even  the  timber  used  in  the  cannery  establishment  at  Orca, 


Keh  type  Co. 


NARCISSUS  BUTTERCUP 

Ran-jnoalUB    cooleyae  \%sey  and  Rose. 


RATE    OF    GROWTH    OF    SITKA    SPRUCE  255 

on  Prince  William  Sound,  as  well  as  for  other  such  estab- 
lishments, is  brought  by  vessel,  a  sawmill  established  in 
the  neighborhood  being  unable  to  compete.  There  are, 
nevertheless,  a  number  of  sawmills  at  intervals  along  the 
coast  supplying  local  needs,  notably  at  Sitka,  Metlakahtla, 
Wrangell,  and  Douglas  City. 

That  the  value  of  this  forest  resource  must  increase 
with  the  development  of  the  country  and  with  the  increase 
of  local  needs  allows  of  no  doubt;  as  a  field  of  exploita- 
tion under  present  economic  conditions,  however,  it  does 
not,  in  the  belief  of  the  writer,  offer  any  inducements,  un- 
less it  be  that  the  spruce  could  be  turned  into  paper  pulp, 
a  good  felting  fiber  being  probably  insured  by  the  rapid 
growth  which  is  found  at  least  in  the  Archipelago. 
Farther  north  and  west  the  rate  of  growth  diminishes  con- 
siderably. In  various  localities  a  few  measurements  were 
made,  which  will  exhibit  the  rate  of  growth. 

At  Sitka,  several  large  spruce  trees,  freshly  felled, 
showed  a  height  of  175  feet  and  a  diameter  of  6  feet,  with 
ages  varying  between  400  and  500  years. 

At  Prince  William  Sound,  a  number  of  logs  gave  the 
following  measurements : 

50  annual  rings,  1 1  inches, 
72       "          "        12  to  15  inches, 
80       "  "        20  inches, 

125       "  "        22  inches, 

which  would  indicate  a  rate  of  about  five  years  to  the  inch 
of  diameter,  a  rather  slow  growth  for  this  species. 

At  Kadiak,  at  the  western  limit  of  tree  growth,  the  rate 
appeared  more  rapid;  the  heights,  to  be  sure,  were  reduced, 
but  the  diameters  still  made  a  very  fair  showing,  although 
variations  in  width  of  annual  rings  greater  than  usual  with 
trees  grown  in  such  open  position  were  apparent.  Trees 
50  to  60  years  old  showed  diameters  of  12  to  15  inches  and 


256  FERNOW 

heights  of  45  to  55  feet;  trees  70  to  90  years  old  exhibited 
diameters  of  18  to  27  inches;  trees  100  to  150  years  old 
varied  between  20  and  36  inches  and  showed  heights  up 
to  1 20  feet.  The  largest  trees  found,  without  chance  of 
ascertaining  their  age,  were  45  inches  in  diameter  and  120 
feet  in  height. 

From  natural  dangers  these  forests  do  not  appear  to  suf- 
fer much.  Of  insect  damage  little  was  noticed.  The  hu- 
midity of  the  atmosphere  and  soil  furnishes,  no  doubt,  con- 
siderable protection  against  fire,  the  greatest  enemy  of  the 
American  forests ;  nevertheless,  there  are  evidences  that  it 
cannot  be  kept  out  entirely.  Avalanches,  here  and  there, 
have  ploughed  through  the  forest  slopes  to  the  water's 
edge,  and  the  hot  ashes  of  Iliamna  Volcano,  near  Cook 
Inlet,  are  credited  with  the  destruction  of  a  considerable 
area  of  spruce  forest. 


GENERAL  GEOGRAPHY 

BY  HENRY  GANNETT 


ALASKA,  our  northernmost  possession,  ex- 
tends over  more  than  20  degrees  of  latitude 
and  45  degrees  of  longitude  —  as  far  as  from 
Florida  to  Maine  and  from  Maine  to  Utah.1 
From  the  main  body  of  the  territory  stretch  two  projec- 
tions, one  to  the  southeast,  comprising  the  Alexander 
Archipelago  and  the  adjacent  mainland,  the  other  to  the 
southwest,  comprising  the  Alaska  Peninsula  and  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands. 

The  exact  area  of  Alaska  cannot  at  present  be  known, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  boundaries  are  as  yet  located 
only  approximately.  The  seacoast,  which  forms  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  the  boundary,  has  not  been  accu- 
rately mapped,  except  in  small  part,  while  the  land  boun- 
dary on  the  southeast,  which  separates  our  territory  from 
Canada,  has  not  been  defined,  except  in  the  general  terms 
of  the  treaty  of  cession  from  Russia.  Various  measure- 
ments have  been  made,  based  upon  different  maps,  giving 
areas  ranging  from  570,000  to  600,000  square  miles.  A 
careful  recent  measurement  from  the  large  map  published 

'It  lies  between  latitudes  51°  and  71°  3C/,  extending  5  degrees  within  the 
Arctic  Circle,  and  stretches  from  longitude  130°  to  175°.  The  great  body  of  the 
territory  lies,  however,  between  latitudes  60°  and  71°  3C/,  and  between  longitudes 
141°  and  168°. 

(257) 


258  GANNETT 

by  the  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  (scale  i :  1,200,- 
ooo)  gives  its  area  as  590,884  square  miles.  Of  this  the 
portion  lying  east  of  the  I4ist  meridian,  popularly  known 
as  southeastern  Alaska,  which  is  the  best  known  part  of 
the  territory,  has  an  area  of  43,710  square  miles,  of  which 
30,800  square  miles  consist  of  mainland  and  12,910  square 
miles  of  islands,  forming  what  is  known  as  the  Alexander 
Archipelago. 

The  Cordillera  of  North  America  enters  Alaska  at  its 
southeastern  extremity  and  follows  the  Pacific  coast  around 
to  the  Aleutian  Islands.  Beyond  this  mountain  system, 
and  following  its  general  trend,  is  a  broad  depression, 
drained  by  the  Yukon  River  and  its  tributaries.  North 
of  this  basin  is  a  height  of  land  which  separates  the 
Yukon  valley  from  the  bleak  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

THE    PACIFIC    COAST    REGION. 

This  portion  of  the  territory  is  mountainous  throughout. 
Although  the  coast  of  the  mainland  and  of  the  islands  is, 
all  together,  several  thousand  miles  in  length,  yet  for  the 
entire  distance  there  are  very  few  square  miles  of  level 
ground.  The  land  rises  from  the  water  almost  every- 
where at  steep  angles,  without  a  sign  of  beach,  to  alti- 
tudes of  thousands  of  feet.  It  is  a  fiord  coast.  The 
islands  are  separated  from  one  another  and  from  the  main- 
land by  fiords,  deep  gorges  whose  bottoms  are  in  some 
cases  thousands  of  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 
These  fiords  extend  far  up  into  the  mainland  and  into  the 
islands,  in  deep,  narrow  U-shaped  inlets. 

The  relief  features  of  this  region,  its  mountains  and  its 
gorges  partly  filled  by  the  sea,  are  all  of  glacial  origin, 
presenting  everywhere  the  familiar  handwriting  of  ice. 
Every  canyon,  every  water  passage,  whether  called  strait, 
canal,  or  bay,  is  a  U-shaped  gorge,  and  its  branches  are 
similar  gorges,  commonly  at  higher  levels  —  'hanging 


A  HANGIHG   VALLEY,  FRAZER    REACH 


GEOGRAPHY  259 

valleys '  they  have  been  called.  Above  the  cliffs  of  the 
gorges  the  mountains  rise  by  gentle  slopes  to  the  base  of 
the  peaks.  The  cross  profile  of  each  gorge  and  its  sur- 
roundings is  that  of  ice,  not  of  water  carving.  It  is  the 
work  of  channel  erosion,  not  of  valley  erosion,  and  the 
channels  were  filled  with  ice.  It  is  a  colossal  exhibition 
of  the  eroding  power  of  water  in  solid  form.  From  Lynn 
Canal,  a  fiord  ninety  miles  in  length,  there  have  been  car- 
ried off  and  dumped  into  the  Pacific  more  than  200  cubic 
miles  of  rock,  and  from  all  the  fiords  of  southeastern  Alaska 
the  amount  removed  may  be  safely  estimated  at  thousands 
of  cubic  miles.  The  ice  has  but  recently  retreated  from 
these  gorges,  for  since  its  retreat  water  has  done  but  little 
work,  although  the  region  is  one  of  heavy  rainfall  and  ex- 
tremely steep  slopes,  where  aqueous  erosion  is  at  a  maxi- 
mum. 

Of  the  great  glaciers  which  occupied  this  region  a  short 
time  ago,  only  trifling  fragments  remain  in  the  upper  ends 
of  the  gorges,  and  comparatively  few  now  reach  the  sea. 
I  use  the  word  trifling,  however,  merely  in  relation  to  their 
former  extent,  for  absolutely  these  remnants  are  not  at 
all  trifling.  The  ice  cap  of  Greenland  and  the  glaciers 
of  the  Antarctic  continent  alone  exceed  them  in  magni- 
tude. All  the  glaciers  of  Switzerland  together  would 
form  but  a  few  rivulets  of  ice  on  the  surface  of  the  great 
Muir  Glacier,  and  the  Muir  is  but  one  of  many  glaciers 
of  equal  magnitude.  Indeed,  on  this  coast  are  scores  of 
live  glaciers,  glaciers  which  reach  the  sea,  presenting  to 
it  fronts  of  ice  or  ice  walls  rising  from  the  sea  bottom  to 
200  or  300  feet  above  its  surface,  and  several  miles  in 
length,  and  which  drop  bergs,  with  thundering  sound, 
into  the  sea.  Of  such  glaciers  about  thirty  were  visited 
by  the  Harriman  Expedition,  and  others  are  known.  Of 
dead  glaciers,  or  those  whose  fronts  do  not  reach  the  sea, 
hundreds  are  known. 


260  GANNETT 

The  mountains  increase  in  height  toward  the  northwest, 
but  not  at  a  uniform  rate.  They  culminate  near  the  coast 
in  the  Fairweather  Range,  south  of  Yakutat  Bay,  at  about 
16,000  feet,  and  in  the  St.  Elias  Range,  west  of  Yakutat 
Bay,  at  18,000  feet  or  more.  These  ranges  are  not  regular 
or  continuous.  While  they  follow  the  general  direction 
of  the  coast,  toward  the  northwest,  they  are  extremely 
broken,  being  cut  through  on  the  mainland  by  many  fiords 
and  by  streams  flowing  into  the  heads  of  the  fiords.  The 
Stikine,  which  reaches  the  coast  near  Wrangell,  heads  far 
to  the  eastward,  in  Canada,  and  cuts  across  the  entire 
breadth  of  the  Cordillera  system.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  Taku  River,  which,  flowing  through  Taku  Inlet, 
reaches  the  coast  near  Juneau;  and  of  the  Chilkat,  which 
flows  into  one  of  the  heads  of  Lynn  Canal.  Alsek  River 
heads  far  to  the  north,  in  Canada,  and  cuts  a  gorge  through 
the  great  Fairweather  Range.  These  are  the  main  rivers 
of  this  coast,  but  there  are  many  smaller  ones,  which  head 
either  beyond  the  mountains  to  the  north  and  east,  or  far 
within  them. 

The  coast  line  from  Cross  Sound  northwestward  to 
Prince  William  Sound  is  comparatively  smooth  and  sim- 
ple, containing  no  inlet  of  magnitude,  with  the  exception 
of  Yakutat  Bay.  As  far  as  Yakutat  Bay  it  is  closely  bor- 
dered by  the  Fairweather  Range,  which  rises  abruptly 
from  10,000  to  16,000  feet  almost  from  the  water's  edge, 
bearing  on  the  summit  a  succession  of  peaks  and  covered 
with  glaciers  along  both  slopes.  A  day  long  to  be  re- 
membered was  that  on  which  our  ship  steamed,  between 
8  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  6  in  the  afternoon,  from 
Yakutat  Bay  to  Cross  Sound,  along  the  entire  front  of  this 
range,  which  was  outlined  against  a  cloudless  sky. 

Yakutat  Bay  is  a  deep  funnel-shaped  bay,  penetrating 
far  into  the  heart  of  the  mountain  region.  At  its  apparent 
head  it  turns  sharply  upon  itself  to  the  south  and  extends 


GEOGRAPHY  26 I 

back  nearly  to  the  sea  in  a  narrow  fiord,  bordered  on 
either  side  by  high  mountain  walls.  This  extension,  here- 
tofore named  Disenchantment  Bay,  has  been  rechristened. 
The  story  of  the  locality  is  as  follows :  More  than  a  cen- 
tury ago  Malaspina,the  Spanish  navigator,  entered  Yakutat 
Bay  while  in  search  of  the  Northwest  Passage.  Sailing 
on  up  the  bay  and  finding  that  open  water  extended  far 
inland,  he  for  a  time  thought  that  for  him  had  been  reserved 
the  fame  and  satisfaction  of  discovering  the  long-sought 
route  through  the  North  American  continent.  His  dream 
was  short,  however,  for  on  nearing  the  bend  in  the  bay  he 
found  his  way  blocked  by  a  solid  wall  of  ice.  This  ice 
was  the  front  of  the  combined  Hubbard  and  Turner  gla- 
ciers, which  then  extended  far  beyond  their  present  limits, 
completely  closing  the  entrance  to  the  fiord  above,  which 
at  that  time  was  probably  an  open  lake  some  200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  overflowing  southward  into 
the  Pacific.  In  memory  of  his  disappointment,  Malaspina 
named  the  upper  part  of  Yakutat  Bay  '  Disenchantment 
Bay/ 

Prof.  I.  C.  Russell,  when  exploring  the  head  of  the 
bay  in  1891,  discovered  the  fiord,  and  in  an  open  boat 
traversed  it  for  its  entire  length.  Instead  of  naming  it, 
he  extended  the  application  of  the  name  Disenchantment 
Bay  to  cover  it.  We  have  rechristened  it,  in  honor  of  its 
discoverer  and  first  explorer,  Russell  Fiord.  Our  ship, 
the  George  W.  Elder,  was  the  first  large  vessel  to  go  to 
the  head  of  this  fiord.  We  made  the  passage  under  the 
pilotage  of  a  Yakutat  Indian  and  lay  at  anchor  over  night 
at  its  head. 

Northwest  of  Yakutat  Bay  for  many  miles  the  shore  is 
covered  by  a  field  of  ice,  Malaspina  Glacier,  which  is  in 
the  main  a  stagnant  pool,  wasting  only  under  the  heat  of 
the  summer  sun,  and  supplied  by  ice  streams  from  the 
St.  Elias  Alps,  which  border  it  on  the  north  and  east. 


262  GANNETT 

Farther  to  the  northwest  stretches  a  low  coast,  rising  into 
mountains  a  score  or  two  of  miles  inland.  Through  these 
mountains  flows  Copper  River,  at  whose  mouth  is  an 
enormous  delta,  built  up  of  detritus  which  it  brings  down 
from  the  interior. 

Then  comes  Prince  William  Sound,  a  bay  of  irregular 
shape,  with  many  tentacle-like  fiords  extending  in  various 
directions  into  the  land.  Its  entrance  is  nearly  closed  by 
islands  between  which  are  several  navigable  passages. 
The  islands  near  the  shores  are  everywhere  mountainous, 
and  on  the  north  shore  mountains  rise  to  about  10,000 
feet,  the  higher  ones  everywhere  skirted  with  glaciers, 
many  of  which  come  down  into  the  sea.  Several  of  the 
fiords  are  of  great  length,  reaching  far  inland.  Thus  Port 
Valdez,  up  which  the  Copper  River  route  to  the  interior 
passes,  extends  inland  more  than  thirty  miles,  and  Port 
Wells,  on  the  northwest  of  Prince  William  Sound,  pushes 
forty  miles  into  the  interior,  far  up  among  the  high  moun- 
tains, and  each  of  its  branches  terminates  in  a  living  gla- 
cier. Passage  Canal,  too,  up  which  runs  the  portage  route 
toTurnagain  Arm  of  Cook  Inlet,  has  a  length  of  thirty  miles. 

Prince  William  Sound,  in  the  mountainous  character  of 
its  shores,  in  its  multitude  of  islands  and  fiords,  and  in  the 
almost  total  absence  of  level  land,  resembles  southeastern 
Alaska.  It  was,  until  recently,  but  little  known,  all  our 
information  concerning  it  being  derived  from  the  explo- 
rations of  Vancouver  and  Malaspina,  made  a  century  or 
more  ago.  Within  the  past  two  years,  however  (1898 
and  1899),  exploring  parties  under  Captain  Abercrombie 
and  Captain  Glenn  have  supplemented  the  work  of  Van- 
couver and  Malaspina,  and  have  added  materially  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  coast  and  adjacent  lands.  Some  addi- 
tional information  also  was  gained  by  the  Harriman  Expe- 
dition, especially  concerning  Columbia  Fiord  and  Glacier, 
and  of  Port  Wells  and  its  glaciers,  in  the  form  of  sketch 


GEOGRAPHY  263 

maps  and  photographs  of  these  localities.  The  head  of 
Port  Wells  and  a  large  branch  coming  in  from  the  west 
were  explored  and  mapped.  This  western  branch,  shown 
on  the  sketch  map  as  Harriman  Fiord,  was  in  all  prob- 
ability closed  at  no  very  remote  time  by  the  front  of 
Barry  Glacier,  which  extended  across  the  fiord  to  the  op- 
posite shore;  indeed,  until  our  visit,  it  was  still  supposed 
to  be  closed.  In  bringing  our  ship  close  to  the  glacier 
front  to  obtain  photographs  of  it,  our  party  discovered 
the  opening  between  its  point  and  the  land,  and  as  we 
steamed  through  we  saw  unfolded  before  us  a  magnificent 
vista  of  mountain  and  glacier. 

' '  We  were  the  first  that  ever  burst 
Into  that  silent  sea." 

It  was  sunset  when  we  entered  the  portals,  and  through 
the  long  twilight  of  the  Arctic  evening,  we  passed  up  the 
fiord  with  mile-high  mountains  and  great  glaciers  on 
either  hand.  A  little  before  midnight  we  reached  its 
head,  where  it  is  terminated  by  the  front  of  Harriman 
Glacier.  A  surveying  party  was  landed  there,  and  two 
days  were  spent  in  making  a  reconnaissance  of  the  fiord 
and  its  surroundings.  In  this  fiord,  in  a  length  of  15 
miles,  there  are,  besides  a  score  of '  dead '  glaciers,  five  live 
glaciers,  four  of  them  of  the  first  magnitude,  and  all 
reaching  the  sea  and  discharging  bergs  into  it. 

The  general  direction  of  the  coast,  which  trends  north- 
west to  a  point  beyond  Mount  Saint  Elias,  gradually 
swings  to  the  westward,  and  beyond  Prince  William 
Sound  turns  toward  the  southwest  in  the  Kenai  Peninsula. 
Beyond  the  end  of  this  are  mountainous  islands,  Afognak 
(594  square  miles)  and  Kadiak  (3,642  square  miles)  the 
latter  the  largest  island  in  Alaska  waters.  These  continue 
the  line  of  Kenai  Peninsula  to  the  southwest,  and  are 
separated  by  the  waters  of  Cook  Inlet  and  Shelikof  Strait 


264  GANNETT 

from  the  Alaska  Peninsula.  This  latter  peninsula  bears 
the  backbone  of  the  mountain  system  which  follows  the 
coast,  the  westward  extension  of  the  Cordillera.  Of  its 
structure  little  is  known,  except  that  here  and  there  are 
upturned  stratified  beds  and  occasional  volcanoes,  some 
extinct,  others  still  smoking,  as  if  the  internal  fires  were 
banked,  but  not  extinguished.  Among  these  are  Redoubt, 
Iliamna,  St.  Augustine  (on  an  island  near  the  coast), 
Pavlof  and  many  others.  Beyond  the  west  end  of  the 
Alaska  Peninsula  its  general  direction  is  continued  by 
groups  of  islands  and  islets,  as  if  the  mountain  range  of 
which  it  is  composed  were  sunken  below  the  sea  and 
only  the  summits  of  its  peaks  protruded  above  the  waves. 
These  are  the  Aleutian  Islands.  Upon  them  also  are 
many  volcanoes,  some  alive,  some  dormant. 

BERING    SEA. 

Just  north  of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  which  run  in  a  broad 
curve,  convex  southward,  over  ten  degrees  of  longitude, 
are  two  islands,  Bogoslof  and  Grewinck.  These  are  very 
young,  the  older  having  come  into  being  104  years  ago, 
the  other  being  but  1 7  years  of  age.  Only  half  a  genera- 
tion ago  it  rose  from  the  sea,  with  great  fury  and  turmoil 
of  escaping  steam,  and  although  for  17  years  its  shores 
have  been  bathed  in  the  icy  waters  of  Bering  Sea  and  its 
summit  wrapped  almost  constantly  in  chilling  fogs,  it  is 
still  hot  and  gives  out  steam.  Its  older  brother  has  long 
since  cooled  and  is  now  the  nesting  place  of  millions  of 
birds,  and  the  breeding  ground  of  hundreds  of  sea-lions. 

North  of  these  rocks,  far  in  the  gloom  of  the  eternal 
fogs  of  Bering  Sea,  lie  the  Seal  Islands  or  Pribilofs,  St. 
George  and  St.  Paul,  little  islands  of  hills  and  gentle  slopes 
of  tundra,  clothed  in  summer  with  a  rich  mantle  of  grass 
and  flowers.  Still  farther  north,  in  the  midst  of  this 
dreary  sea,  where  the  sun  seldom  shines,  are  St.  Matthew 


GEOGRAPHY  265 

and  Hall  Islands,  buttressed  by  cliffs,  above  which  are 
undulating  slopes  of  tundra,  grassy  and  gay  with  flowers; 
and  beyond  them  St.  Lawrence,  a  mountain  island  fringed 
by  a  boggy  plain. 

The  Alaska  coast  of  Bering  Sea  is  mainly  low  and 
marshy,  rising  very  gently  inland,  and  consisting  al- 
most entirely  of  tundra.  The  Yukon,  the  great  river  of 
Alaska  and  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  earth,  ends  its 
long  journey  seaward  in  an  enormous  delta,  which  covers 
thousands  of  square  miles.  Through  this  great  area  of 
low,  level  land  its  distributaries  meander  sluggishly  to  the 
sea,  bringing  from  the  interior  mud  and  gold  and  drift- 
wood, to  be  spread  along  the  coast  by  the  currents. 

Such  is  the  Alaska  coast:  where  it  faces  the  Pacific, 
bold,  rugged,  and  bordered  throughout  by  a  mountain 
barrier;  where  it  faces  Bering  Sea,  low,  tundra-clothed, 
and  affording  easy  access  to  the  interior  by  means  of  its 
great  river. 

THE    INTERIOR. 

Of  the  interior  of  Alaska  we  know  much  less  than  of 
its  borders.  Not  only  did  the  early  explorers  confine 
their  attention  almost  entirely  to  its  coasts,  but  the  inhab- 
itants, both  natives  and  Europeans,  owing  to  the  difficul- 
ties of  land  travel  in  the  interior,  have  always  lived  upon 
the  coast  or  upon  the  larger  streams,  and  have  made  their 
journeys  by  the  water  routes.  It  is  only  in  recent  years 
that  definite  geographic  information  concerning  the  interior 
has  been  obtained,  and  at  present,  through  the  extensive 
explorations  carried  on  by  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  and 
officers  of  the  U.  S.  Army,  such  information  is  rapidly 
increasing. 

The  primary  slope  of  the  land  is  toward  the  west  and 
southwest,  as  is  indicated  by  the  courses  of  the  great 
rivers  of  the  Territory,  the  Yukon,  Kuskokwim,  Koyukuk, 
and  others.  The  trend  of  the  mountain  uplifts,  on  the 


266  GANNETT 

Pacific  side,  swings  around  from  northwest  to  southwest, 
thus  following  the  general  course  of  the  coast.  Of  the 
great  features  of  the  territory  this  chain  forms  the  south- 
ernmost, and  is  the  key  to  the  structure  of  the  country. 
Succeeding  it  on  the  north  is  the  great  valley  of  the  Yukon, 
which  is  separated  from  the  Arctic  coast  by  ranges  of  low 
mountains  and  broken  country  probably  nowhere  exceed- 
ing 5,000  or  6,000  feet  in  altitude. 

The  Cordillera  attains  its  greatest  breadth  and  altitude 
between  longitudes  142°  and  152°.  Here  are  many  sum- 
mits reputed  to  exceed  12,000  feet  in  height,  with  Mount 
Wrangell,  said  to  be  17,500  feet,  and  Mount  McKinley,1 
so  far  as  known  the  highest  summit  on  the  North  Amer- 
ican continent,  rising  to  an  altitude  of  20,464  feet.  In 
this  portion  of  the  mountain  system  are  the  sources  of 
many  large  rivers,  the  White,  a  branch  of  the  Yukon,  the 
Copper,  well  named  on  account  of  the  enormous  deposits 
of  copper  ore  found  near  it,  the  Sushitna,  flowing  into  the 
head  of  Cook  Inlet,  the  Tanana,  another  branch  of  the 
Yukon,  and  finally  the  Kuskokwim,  which,  heading  in  the 
western  part  of  this  group,  flows  southwest  into  Bering 
Sea.  In  the  region  north  of  the  Yukon  valley  originate 
many  streams,  including  several  large  branches  of  the 
Yukon,  as  the  Porcupine  and  Koyukuk;  other  streams, 
as  the  Noatak  and  Kowak,  flow  into  Kotzebue  Sound, 
and  still  others,  as  the  Colville,  flow  northward  into  the 
Arctic  Ocean. 

The  country  is  intersected  by  a  network  of  rivers  and 
lakes  navigable  for  canoes,  although  navigation  is  much 
interrupted  by  rapids  and  falls.  The  great  highway  of  the 
territory  is  the  Yukon  River,  which,  heading  in  British 
Columbia,  flows  northwestward  through  a  succession  of 
lakes  and  rapids,  and  crosses  the  boundary  line  in  latitude 
65°.  It  reaches  its  most  northern  point  just  on  the  Arc- 
latitude  63°,  longitude  149°. 


CLIMATE  267 

tic  Circle,  in  longitude  146°,  and  thence  flows  southwest- 
ward  to  its  mouth.  It  is  navigable  for  small  steamers 
throughout  its  course  in  Alaska,  and  when  not  closed  by 
ice,  that  is,  from  June  to  October,  carries  much  traffic, 
since  the  greater  part  of  the  food,  supplies,  machinery  and 
other  goods  for  the  support  of  the  mines  in  Alaska  and 
the  Klondike  come  by  this  route. 

North  of  the  Yukon  most  of  the  land  is  permanently 
frozen  at  a  depth,  thawing  only  near  the  surface  in  sum- 
mer. Wherever  the  slopes  are  at  all  gentle  such  ground 
is  marshy,  forming  the  well-known  tundra  of  the  Arctic 
regions. 

CLIMATE. 

We  must  speak  of  the  climates  rather  than  the  climate 
of  Alaska,  for  different  parts  of  the  Territory  differ  in 
climate,  not  in  degree  only,  but  in  kind.  The  Pacific  coast 
has  a  climate  of  its  own,  the  coast  of  Bering  Sea  has  an- 
other, and  both  differ  widely  from  that  of  the  interior. 

The  climate  of  the  Pacific  coast,  from  Portland  Canal  in 
the  extreme  southeast  to  Attu  Island  at  the  west  end  of 
the  Aleutian  chain,  may  be  characterized,  in  a  word,  as 
*  chilly.'  Take  the  well-known  climate  of  San  Francisco 
with  its  dampness,  fogs,  and  cold  sea  winds,  reduce  the 
temperature  15  to  18  degrees  and  increase  the  dampness 
and  fog  in  proportion,  and  you  have  a  fair  idea  of  the 
climate  of  the  Alaska  Pacific  coast.  At  Sitka,  in  latitude 
57°,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  43°  Fahr.,  which  is 
about  the  same  as  at  Eastport,  Maine,  12  degrees  farther 
south.  The  extreme  range  of  temperature  on  record  at 
Sitka  is  from  a  trifle  below  zero  Fahrenheit  to  90°  above, 
and  the  monthly  mean  temperatures  range  from  31°  to  56° 
only,  illustrating  the  wonderfully  uniform  temperature  of 
the  Pacific  coast.  At  Kadiak,  16  degrees  farther  west 
and  a  degree  farther  north,  the  mean  temperature  is  2° 


268  GANNETT 

lower  and  the  extreme  range  of  temperature  less.  At 
Unalaska,  3  degrees  south  of  Sitka,  the  mean  temperature 
is  only  36°  and  the  range  of  temperature  is  still  smaller. 

While  the  mean  annual  temperature  on  this  coast, 
whose  latitude  ranges  from  54°  to  60°,  does  not  differ  ma- 
terially from  that  of  Eastport,  Maine,  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
in  latitude  45°,  the  summer  temperature  is  much  colder 
and  the  winter  temperature  much  warmer.  The  statement 
has  been  made  that  it  is  no  colder  at  Sitka  than  in 
Georgia.  I  believe  this  to  be  true  in  the  sense  that  the 
minimum  temperature  is  no  lower,  but  it  represents  only 
a  part  of  the  facts,  and  much  the  less  important  part.  It 
is  also  true  that  it  is  no  warmer  at  Sitka  than  it  is  on  the 
Arctic  Circle,  that  is,  the  maximum  temperature  is  no 
greater,  and  for  most  economic  purposes  except  the  mak- 
ing of  ice,  it  is  warmth,  not  cold,  that  concerns  us. 

The  annual  rainfall  is  heavy  over  this  entire  coast.  At 
Sitka  it  is  more  than  double  that  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  105 
inches  a  year  being  the  record,  and  it  diminishes  but  little 
westward.  At  Unalaska  the  record  is  92  inches.  Rain 
falls  mainly  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  the  summer  being 
comparatively  dry. 

A  description  of  climate  would  be  incomplete  if  it 
did  not  include  the  amount  of  sunshine  and  cloudiness, 
since  these  are  important  factors  in  the  growth  of  plant 
life.  At  Sitka  it  is  cloudy  two-thirds  of  the  time,  and 
nearly  half  of  the  time  it  is  raining  or  snowing.  At 
Kadiak  the  conditions  are  a  little  better;  at  Unalaska 
they  are  worse,  for  Unalaska  is  unrivaled  for  bad  weather. 
Only  eight  days  in  the  year,  during  several  years  of  record, 
were  entirely  clear,  and  only  45  partly  clear,  the  remain- 
ing 312  being  cloudy,  and  271  of  those  were  rainy  or 
snowy. 

Before  attempting  to  explain  these  peculiarities  of  cli- 
mate it  should  be  stated  that  the  sea  commonly  produces 


CLIMATE  269 

two  modifications  of  temperature.  It  may  reduce  the  ex- 
tremes, making  the  atmosphere  cooler  in  summer  and 
warmer  in  winter,  and  it  may  reduce  or  increase  the  mean 
annual  temperature.  The  Pacific  coast  of  Alaska  is  within 
the  range  of  the  prevailing  westerly  winds  of  the  North- 
ern Hemisphere.  These  winds  come  off  the  ocean,  bring- 
ing to  the  coast  the  temperature  of  the  sea.  As  the  sea 
absorbs  heat  slowly,  in  comparison  with  the  land,  and 
parts  with  it  as  slowly,  the  winds  blowing  off  it  are  cool 
in  summer  and  warm  in  winter.  Moreover,  since  the 
ocean  has  waves,  tides,  and  currents,  by  which  its  waters 
are  moved  about,  the  cold  water  of  the  north  toward  the 
south,  and  the  heated  water  of  the  tropics  toward  the  north, 
there  is  a  tendency  to  establish  an  equilibrium  of  tem- 
perature. Thus  the  northern  seas  are  warmer  on  the 
whole  —  that  is,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  higher  — 
than  land  in  the  same  latitudes,  and  through  the  agency 
of  the  westerly  winds  the  coast  shares  in  this  amelioration 
of  temperature. 

These  same  westerly  winds  are  responsible  for  another 
feature  of  the  climate,  the  heavy  rainfall.  They  come 
from  the  sea  saturated  with  moisture,  and  if  they  find  the 
land  colder  than  they  are,  as  it  is  in  fall  and  winter,  they 
are  chilled  below  the  point  of  saturation  and  disgorge 
copiously;  but  if  they  find  the  land  warm,  as  it  is  in 
summer,  they  carry  their  moisture  inland  and  the  coast 
enjoys  a  comparatively  dry  season.  This  season  is,  how- 
ever, dry  only  in  comparison  with  the  winter,  the  wet 
season.  The  rainfall  of  the  three  winter  months  at  Sitka 
is  commonly  about  30  inches,  while  that  of  the  three 
summer  months  is  16  inches,  or  more  than  half  that  of 
winter. 

The  fogs  of  this  coast,  really  the  most  obtrusive  feature 
of  the  climate,  occur  whenever  the  wind  blows  from  the 
sea,  which  it  does  most  of  the  time,  even  in  summer.  For 


270  GANNETT 

obvious  reasons  they  seldom  or  never  occur  with  a  land 
breeze. 

The  coast  of  Bering  Sea  has  a  climate  widely  different 
from  that  of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  mean  annual  temper- 
ature is  much  lower,  even  after  due  allowance  for  the  dif- 
ference in  latitude.  At  St.  Michael  it  is  26°,  and  at  Port 
Clarence,  in  Bering  Strait,  it  is  20°.  The  range  of  tem- 
perature is  much  greater.  The  mean  temperature  of  the 
coldest  month  at  St.  Michael  is  — 2°,  of  the  warmest  month 
54°,  showing  a  range  of  56°.  Similarly,  at  Port  Clarence 
the  coldest  month  is  — 11°,  the  warmest  50°,  a  range  of 
61°.  The  highest  temperature  on  record  at  St.  Michael 
is  75°,  the  lowest — 55°,  a  range  of  130°.  The  contrast 
with  the  Pacific  coast  is  still  greater  in  the  matter  of  rain- 
fall, which  at  St.  Michael  is  very  light,  amounting  to  only 
14  inches  annually.  Moreover,  rain  falls  in  the  warm 
rather  than  in  the  cold  season. 

The  temperature  of  this  coast  is  not  much  modified  by 
the  sea.  Bering  Sea  is  practically  a  closed  sea,  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands  forming  a  partial  barrier  against  the  warmer 
waters  of  the  Pacific;  consequently  its  waters  retain,  to  a 
large  extent  at  least,  the  temperature  incident  to  the  lati- 
tude. Its  mean  annual  temperature  is  little  affected  by 
outside  influences,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  is  frozen  for 
half  the  year.  The  extremes  of  temperature,  however,  are 
reduced  by  the  slow  absorption  and  radiation  of  heat,  just 
as  with  the  Pacific.  As  this  region  is  north  of  the  terri- 
tory of  the  prevailing  westerlies,  the  winds  have  no  prev- 
alent direction,  but  blow  whithersoever  they  list.  For 
the  same  reason  the  rainfall  is  light.  Though  the  air  over 
the  sea  is  saturated  with  moisture,  little  of  it  drifts  over 
the  land  to  supply  rain. 

If  there  is  a  region  more  infested  with  fogs  than  the 
Pacific  coast  of  Alaska  it  is  Bering  Sea.  Here  fog  is  the 
normal  condition,  and  clear,  bright  weather  the  rare  ex- 


CLIMATE  271 

ception.  It  is  no  uncommon  experience  for  vessels  bound 
for  the  Pribilofs  to  miss  the  islands  in  the  fog,  and  to 
spend  days  searching  for  them,  as  for  needles  in  a  hay- 
stack. They  are  a  small  target  to  shoot  a  vessel  at  from 
Unalaska,  250  miles  away,  and  once  missed,  are  not  easily 
found  in  this  great  foggy  waste. 

The  climate  of  the  great  interior  region  is  that  common 
to  the  interior  of  all  continents.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  practically  the  same  as  in  the  same  latitude  on 
the  coast  of  Bering  Sea,  but  the  range  of  temperature  is 
much  greater.  It  is  warmer  in  summer  and  colder  in 
winter,  since  the  land  heats  and  cools  much  more  rapidly 
than  the  sea.  At  the  point  where  the  international  boun- 
dary crosses  the  Yukon  River  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
coldest  month  (in  1889)  was  —  17°,  that  of  the  warmest 
month  60°,  a  range  of  77°.  Contrast  these  figures  with 
those  given  above  for  Sitka,  where  the  corresponding 
range  was  only  26°.  Furthermore,  consider  that  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  warmest  month  on  the  Yukon, 
in  latitude  64°  41',  was  4°  higher  than  at  Sitka,  over  500 
miles  farther  south.  These  figures  are  instructive  in 
pointing  the  conclusion  that  if  any  part  of  Alaska  can  be- 
come of  agricultural  importance  it  is  the  interior  rather 
than  the  Pacific  coast.  But  it  is  doubtful  whether  even 
this  region  will  admit  of  profitable  farming.  In  connec- 
tion with  this  question  the  experience  of  the  Canadians  is 
instructive.  On  Peace  River,  in  latitude  56°,  600  miles 
farther  south,  many  and  persistent  attempts  at  farming 
have  been  made,  but  without  financial  success,  although 
it  is  doubtless  true  that  certain  crops  have  been  matured 
there. 

The  extreme  range  of  temperature  in  the  interior  is  sur- 
prising, even  to  those  accustomed  to  roast  by  day  and 
freeze  by  night  in  our  western  deserts.  At  this  same 
point  on  the  Yukon,  temperatures  of — 60°  and  of  87° 


272  GANNETT 

have  been  recorded,  a  range  of  147°.     Again  contrast  this 
with  Sitka,  where  90°  is  the  extreme  range  record. 

The  rainfall  in  the  interior  is  light,  ranging  at  various 
places  and  in  different  years  from  10  to  25  inches.  With 
the  cold  climate  and  consequent  slight  evaporation,  it 
is  probably  sufficient  in  the  majority  of  years  for  agri- 
cultural requirements.  Differing  radically  from  the  coast 
climates,  this  climate  is  bright  and  sunny.  There  is 
little  dull,  cloudy  weather,  and  practically  no  fog.  There 
is  more  sunshine  here  in  a  month  that  at  Sitka  in  a  year. 

FORESTS 

The  coast,  as  far  to  the  westward  as  Cook  Inlet,  is 
densely  forested  up  to  the  timber-line,  which  ranges  with 
the  latitude  from  3,000  to  2,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
timber  is  mainly,  indeed  almost  entirely,  Sitka  spruce. 
There  is  some  hemlock  at  higher  levels,  and  in  the 
southern  part  a  little  cedar  also,  but  these  are  of  little  com- 
mercial importance.  Red  or  Douglas  fir,  which  forms  the 
bulk  and  principal  value  of  the  forests  of  Washington, 
disappears  in  British  Columbia.  The  spruce  is  large  and 
fine,  as  judged  by  eastern  standards,  but  as  compared  with 
the  timber  of  Oregon  and  Washington,  which  is  the 
standard  on  the  Pacific  coast,  it  is  inferior,  and  little  use 
is  at  present  made  of  it,  most  of  the  timber  needed  being 
brought  from  Puget  Sound.  On  Kadiak  and  the  adjacent 
islands  there  is  little  timber,  and  farther  west  on  the 
Alaska  Peninsula  and  the  Aleutian  Islands,  none  what- 
ever; nor  are  there  any  trees  on  the  islands  in  Bering 
Sea.  Why  the  timber  should  thus  suddenly  disappear  on 
the  peninsula  and  islands  is  an  open  question.  The  rain- 
fall is  ample,  and  the  climate  little  more  severe  than  at 
Sitka,  and  less  severe  than  about  Prince  William  Sound. 
The  suggestion  that  high,  cold  winds  prevent  tree  growth 
is  negatived  by  the  fact  that  such  winds  occur  all  along 


POPULATION  273 

the  coast,  in  forested  as  well  as  non-forested  parts.    More- 
over, the  forest-fire  fiend  has  not  been  here. 

The  interior  of  the  territory  is  forested,  mainly  with 
spruce,  as  far  north  as  the  valley  of  the  Koyukuk,  and  as 
far  westward  as  the  delta  of  the  Yukon.  In  this  enormous 
region  there  must  be  a  very  large  amount  of  coniferous 
timber,  sufficient  to  supply  our  country  for  half  a  gen- 
eration in  case  our  other  supplies  become  exhausted. 

POPULATION. 

The  population  of  Alaska  in  1900,  according  to  the 
Twelfth  Census,  was  63,592,  having  nearly  doubled  in 
the  preceding  ten  years.  Of  the  total  increase,  31,540, 
about  three-fourths  was  acquired  by  that  portion  of  the 
territory  lying  north  of  the  Yukon  River,  and  only  one- 
fourth  by  that  portion  south  of  that  river,  including  south- 
eastern Alaska.  Half  of  the  increase  in  northern  Alaska 
consisted  of  the  people  of  Nome,  which  had  a  population 
of  12,486,  by  far  the  largest  aggregation  of  people  any- 
where in  the  Territory;  the  remainder  were  scattered 
widely  over  its  great  area,  but  mainly  in  the  valley  of  the 
Yukon  and  along  the  coast  north  of  the  mouth  of  that 
river. 

In  southern  Alaska  the  population  increased  almost 
everywhere,  but  not  by  any  means  at  so  rapid  a  rate  as  in 
certain  localities  in  northern  Alaska.  Skagway  had  a 
population  of  3,117,  Sitka  of  1,396,  Juneau,  1,864,  Doug- 
las, 825,  Wrangell,  868,  and  the  Indian  village  of  Metla- 
kahtla,  465. 

Of  this  total  population  about  25,000,  or  a  little  more 
than  two-fifths,  were  Indians,  Eskimos,  or  mixed  bloods, 
the  remainder  being  whites.  The  increase  during  the 
past  ten  years  probably  consists  entirely  of  whites. 

The  population  is  in  high  degree  a  floating  one,  with 
the  slightest  possible  attachment  to  localities,  and  subse- 


274  GANNETT 

quent  censuses  will  doubtless  show  radical  changes  in  its 
distribution. 

RESOURCES 

The  natural  resources  of  Alaska  are  enormous.  The 
skins  and  furs,  the  fish,  the  gold,  copper,  and  coal,  and  the 
timber  of  the  territory  are  in  value  almost  beyond  calcu- 
lation, and  the  mere  reaping  of  this  harvest  sown  and 
ripened  for  us  by  nature  will  occupy  an  industrial  army 
for  many  years.  The  wealth  thus  collected  will  add 
greatly  to  the  well-being  and  happiness  of  our  people. 

Some  of  these  natural  resources,  however,  have  begun 
to  suffer  from  the  drain  to  which  they  have  been  subjected. 
The  gathering  of  furs  and  skins,  which  has  been  in  prog- 
ress since  the  early  Russian  occupancy  of  the  territory, 
has  been  prosecuted  so  actively  that  the  fur  trade  is  now 
of  comparatively  little  consequence.  Blue  foxes  are  now 
so  valuable  that  systematic  attempts  are  being  made  to 
breed  them  for  their  skins.  The  sea  otter  has  become 
very  rare,  and  the  value  of  its  skin  correspondingly  high. 
The  fur-seals,  on  account  of  pelagic  sealing,  are  now  re- 
duced to  a  small  fraction  of  their  former  number  and  only 
24,000  skins  were  obtained  at  the  seal  islands  in  1899. 
Even  the  great  brown  bear  has  become  scarce  and  shy, 
and  hides  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  interior,  away  from  the 
seaboard,  where  he  was  formerly  abundant. 

The  seabirds,  once  plentiful  all  along  the  coast,  are 
now  driven  to  the  rarely  visited  parts,  where,  particularly 
on  the  islands  of  Bering  Sea,  they  may  yet  be  found  by 
millions. 

Fish  are  still  abundant,  but  the  salmon  canneries  have 
already  reduced  the  supply  in  many  of  the  rivers,  and  the 
erection  of  new  canneries  along  the  coast  will  soon  make 
the  reduction  more  apparent.  During  the  year  1899  these 
canneries  packed  and  shipped  1,100,000  cases  and  25,000 
barrels  of  this  fish. 


RESOURCES  275 

The  mineral  resources  of  the  Territory  are  yet  in  an 
undeveloped  condition,  but  unless  all  signs  fail,  the  chief 
wealth  to  be  obtained  from  Alaska  will  be  taken  from 
the  ground.  Coal  is  known  to  exist  in  many  localities, 
but  is  nowhere,  as  yet,  mined  on  a  commercial  scale, 
owing  mainly  to  its  inferior  quality;  the  coal  in  use  at 
present  is  brought  from  Nanaimo  or  Puget  Sound.  Cop- 
per vein  deposits  of  great  magnitude  and  richness  have 
been  found,  notably  on  Copper  River  and  the  shores  of 
Prince  William  Sound,  but  as  yet  none  of  them  have 
been  developed,  beyond  the  shipping  of  a  few  hundred 
tons  of  ore  for  testing.  Gold  deposits,  both  placer  and 
vein,  have  been  found  in  various  places  all  over  the  terri- 
tory. They  are  so  widely  distributed  and  so  rich  as  to 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  with  more  extended  and  thor- 
ough prospecting,  the  known  auriferous  areas  will  be 
vastly  increased  and  the  yield  of  the  yellow  metal  mul- 
tiplied many  times.  Some  of  the  quartz  mines,  as  the 
Treadwell,  near  Juneau,  have  been  worked  productively 
for  many  years.  This  mine  alone  has  produced  about 
$10,000,000.  Others  have  recently  become  productive, 
and  still  others,  more  numerous,  are  yet  in  the  develop- 
ment stage.  The  mines  near  Juneau  produced,  in  1899, 
gold  of  the  value  of  nearly  two  million  dollars.  At  sev- 
eral localities  in  southeastern  Alaska  and  on  the  Shu- 
magin  Islands  quartz  mines  have  been  discovered,  but  at 
present  placers  are  far  more  abundant.  They  have  been 
found  on  many  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Yukon,  especially 
on  those  from  the  south,  the  Sushitna,  the  Kuskokwim, 
and  the  Koyukuk,  and  in  the  north,  the  Ambler  and  the 
Noatak.  At  several  places  gold  has  been  found  in  the 
beach  sands  on  the  seashore,  and  last,  but  by  no  means 
least,  on  the  beach  and  the  stream-beds  at  Cape  Nome 
and  Port  Clarence.  These  last  discoveries  seem  to  be 
the  greatest  of  the  whole  northwest,  rivaling,  and  prob- 


276  GANNETT 

ably  exceeding,  the  great  Klondike  discovery,  for  many 
millions  appear  to  be  in  sight,  awaiting  the  pan  or 
rocker  to  separate  the  golden  sand.  The  harvest  of  gold 
from  Cape  Nome  during  the  summer  of  1900  was  $5,000- 
ooo  and  the  total  product  of  the  Territory  from  placers  in 
1899  was  $5,500,000. 

But  after  the  enumeration  of  these  latent  resources  of  the 
Territory  few  are  left  to  describe.  Alaska  is  not  a  country 
for  agriculture,  nor  for  home-making.  It  has  paid  us  its 
purchase  price  many  times  over,  and  in  the  future  will  pour 
much  wealth  into  our  laps,  but  it  will  never  pay,  as  other 
accessions  to  our  territory  have  paid,  in  making  homes  for 
our  people.  At  present  few  people  go  to  Alaska  to  live; 
they  go  merely  to  stay  until  they  have  made  their  stake. 

Farming  as  a  business  is  impossible  under  the  climatic 
conditions  prevalent  on  the  coast.  It  is  granted  at  once 
that  it  is  possible  to  mature  certain  hardy  crops  in  favor- 
able seasons,  but  this  is  quite  a  different  thing  from  raising 
crops  in  competition  with  California  and  the  Willamette 
valley,  even  when  the  cost  of  freight  is  added.  It  must 
be  done  at  a  profit  or  not  at  all.  It  is  of  no  avail  to  raise 
potatoes  when  they  can  be  brought  from  Portland  and 
sold  for  less  than  the  cost  of  production  in  Alaska.  If 
there  is  any  part  of  the  Territory  in  which  farming  can  be 
successfully  carried  on,  it  is  the  interior,  which  has  a  much 
more  favorable  summer  climate  than  the  coast;  but  even 
there  success  is  doubtful.  However,  as  the  higher  rate  of 
freight  to  the  interior  will  have  the  effect  of  a  protective 
tariff  on  home  products,  it  may  be  possible  to  raise  grain 
and  vegetables  at  a  profit  under  conditions  which  would 
be  prohibitory  on  the  coast. 

SCENERY. 

There  is  one  other  asset  of  the  Territory  not  yet  enumer- 
ated, imponderable,  and  difficult  to  appraise,  yet  one  of  the 


ir 
3 


H 

r 


SCENERY  277 

chief  assets  of  Alaska,  if  not  the  greatest.  This  is  the 
scenery.  There  are  glaciers,  mountains,  and  fiords  else- 
where, but  nowhere  else  on  earth  is  there  such  abundance 
and  magnificence  of  mountain,  fiord,  and  glacier  scenery. 
For  thousands  of  miles  the  coast  is  a  continuous  panorama. 
For  the  one  Yosemite  of  California  Alaska  has  hundreds. 
The  mountains  and  glaciers  of  the  Cascade  Range  are 
duplicated  and  a  thousand-fold  exceeded  in  Alaska.  The 
Alaska  coast  is  to  become  the  show-place  of  the  earth,  and 
pilgrims,  not  only  from  the  United  States,  but  from  far 
beyond  the  seas,  will  throng  in  endless  procession  to  see 
it.  Its  grandeur  is  more  valuable  than  the  gold  or  the  fish 
or  the  timber,  for  it  will  never  be  exhausted.  This  value, 
measured  by  direct  returns  in  money  received  from  tour- 
ists, will  be  enormous;  measured  by  health  and  pleasure 
it  will  be  incalculable. 

There  is  one  word  of  advice  and  caution  to  be  given 
those  intending  to  visit  Alaska  for  pleasure,  for  sight-see- 
ing. If  you  are  old,  go  by  all  means;  but  if  you  are 
young,  wait.  The  scenery  of  Alaska  is  much  grander 
than  anything  else  of  the  kind  in  the  world,  and  it  is  not 
well  to  dull  one's  capacity  for  enjoyment  by  seeing  the 
finest  first. 


THE  ALASKA  ATMOSPHERE 

BY    WM.    H.    BREWER 

HE  aspects  of  the  sky  and  atmosphere  along 
the  Alaska  coast  have  a  character  unlike  that 
of  any  other  part  of  the  United  States,  and 
give  an  especial  interest  and  charm  to  the 
scenery.  For  a  better  understanding  of  its 
peculiarities,  a  short  statement  of  a  few  elementary  facts 
regarding  the  air  may  be  given  by  way  of  preface. 

The  gases  which  compose  the  atmosphere  are  all  trans- 
parent and  if  the  air  contained  nothing  else,  we  would 
have  clear  weather  all  the  time.  We  should  then  see  dis- 
tant objects  more  plainly,  but  all  the  other  effects  of  light 
and  shade  and  color  in  landscape  and  sky  would  be  very 
unlike  what  we  actually  see  in  nature.  The  difference 
in  the  appearance  of  the  landscape  from  what  it  naturally 
is,  would  be  greatest  in  the  warmer  and  least  in  the  colder 
climates.  There  would  then  be  little  color  in  the  landscape 
and  none  at  all  in  the  black  cloudless  sky.  But  the  at- 
mosphere contains  dust  and  smoke  and  haze  and  fog  and 
cloud,  and  these,  in  one  way  or  another,  give  it  all  its 
varying  aspects.  The  clouds  may  be  of  fine  particles  of 
water  or  of  ice. 

The  phenomena  of  color  are  due  to  the  different  wave- 
lengths of  light,  longer  waves  producing  red,  shorter  ones 

(279) 


280  BREWER 

violet,  the  different  lengths  of  the  light-waves  producing 
all  the  colors  observed  in  the  rainbow.  When  the  dust- 
particles  in  the  air  are  smaller  than  a  wave-length  of  sun- 
light, they  break  up  the  waves  and  cause  a  variety  of 
color  effects  dependent  on  the  size  and  other  conditions 
of  the  particles.  The  afterglow,  seen  in  the  sky  just 
after  the  sun  sets,  is  caused  by  particles  of  dust  or  ice 
suspended  in  the  air.  The  color  of  the  glow  is  red  or 
orange  or  yellow,  according  to  the  coarseness  of  the  par- 
ticles, the  brilliancy  of  the  coloring  being  related  to  cer- 
tain other  conditions.  The  red  color  of  the  disk  of  the 
sun  or  the  moon,  seen  through  the  smoke  of  burning  for- 
ests, or  through  the  dense  haze  in  very  dry  weather,  is 
due  to  the  same  cause.  So  too  is  the  green  sun,  some- 
times seen  through  air  laden  with  finer  dust  from  volcanic 
eruptions,  or  even  the  dust  from  deserts. 

All  the  haze  and  turbidness  of  the  atmosphere  and 
all  the  colors  of  the  sky  are  due  to  suspended  particles 
of  dust  or  smoke  or  water  or  ice.  Cloud  consists  of  fine 
particles  of  water,  which  become  frozen  into  very  fine 
particles  of  ice  in  the  cold  upper  air.  The  different  de- 
grees of  fineness  of  the  suspended  particles  give  different 
colors  to  the  sky  itself.  The  dust  particles  are  finer  in 
the  upper  air  and  they  make  the  sky  blue,  and  the  sky  is 
deepest  blue  where  the  suspended  dust  is  finest.  For  this 
reason  the  sky  is  always  of  a  deeper  blue  when  seen  from 
the  summits  of  high  mountains.  From  very  high  peaks 
the  very  dark  blue  sky  has  often  a  violet  tinge,  due  to  the 
exceeding  fineness  of  the  dust  in  the  thin,  dry,  upper  air. 

No  region  has  yet  been  discovered  in  which  the  air  is 
entirely  free  from  dust.  The  shadows  of  high  mountains 
are  often  projected  against  the  sky  at  sunrise  and  sunset 
in  clear  weather  and  are  due  to  it.  The  general  fact  has 
often  been  described,  particularly  as  observed  from  the 
higher  mountains  of  the  western  United  States,  and  pho- 


ATMOSPHERE  281 

tographs  have  been  taken  of  the  shadows  of  Pikes  Peak 
and  of  Mount  Hood  and  perhaps  of  other  mountains. 
When  seen  under  the  best  conditions,  this  shadow  consti- 
tutes a  phenomenon  of  indescribable  impressiveness.  I 
have  a  most  vivid  recollection  of  such  a  scene  from  one 
of  the  high  volcanic  cones  of  northern  California,  which 
may  be  cited  as  an  illustration.  We  had  climbed  the  peak 
in  the  night  and  were  on  the  summit  until  midday.  The 
sky  was  absolutely  cloudless  and  the  air  still  and  excep- 
tionally clear,  having  been  purified  by  a  recent  storm. 
Never  before  nor  since  have  I  had  a  wider  view.  Points 
two  hundred  miles  distant  were  sharply  defined  on  the 
horizon,  yet,  even  in  that  clear  air,  there  was  dust  enough 
to  serve  as  a  screen  on  which  the  grand  picture  was 
thrown.  As  the  sun  rose,  a  giant  spectral  mountain  ap- 
peared against  the  opposite  sky.  It  was  of  deep  cobalt 
blue  sharply  defined  against  the  lighter  '  azure-blue '  of 
the  sunlit  air  about  it.  An  optical  illusion  greatly  mag- 
nified its  size.  Owing  to  the  curvature  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, it  reached  high  in  the  sky  and  far  above  the  Coast 
Ranges  on  the  western  horizon.  It  was  much  higher  than 
any  real  mountain  on  earth,  but  as  the  sun  mounted  higher 
the  spectre  sunk  lower  until  it  disappeared. 

The  shadow  of  the  earth  itself  may  often  be  seen  in 
the  eastern  sky  on  a  clear  evening.  Just  after  the  sun  dis- 
appears, a  dark  band  appears  along  the  opposite  horizon 
and  slowty  creeps  upward.  It  is  darker  blue  in  color  than 
the  sky  above  it  and  is  often  bordered  on  its  upper  edge 
by  a  fringe  of  faint  rose-color  which  sometimes  takes  on 
a  distinctly  purple  hue. 

When  farthest  north  on  our  Alaska  cruise,  the  earth 
shadow  was  especially  interesting,  and  its  appearance  in- 
dicated the  great  purity  of  the  air  there  as  related  to  dust 
or  smoke.  The  long  Arctic  twilight  is  sufficient  evidence 


282  BREWER 

that  there  is  enough  suspended  matter,  even  there,  to  make 
a  luminous  sky  on  which  shadows  can  be  cast.  The  night 
we  steamed  across  from  the  Asiatic  to  the  American  coast, 
just  below  Bering  Strait,  the  southern  sky  was  cloudless, 
there  was  no  moon,  and  the  earth  shadow  was  very  dis- 
tinct. It  was  a  grand  arch  of  deep  blue  which  slowly 
rose  and  crept  along  the  southern  sky,  attaining  at  mid- 
night the  height  of  thirty  or  forty  degrees.  It  was  very 
much  higher  than  I  have  ever  seen  the  shadow  in  lower 
latitudes.  It  was  very  distinct  as  to  shade,  although  not 
so  sharp  in  outline  as  we  see  at  home.  There  was  no 
tinge  of  rose  or  purple,  although  we  had  some  red  and 
crimson  clouds  in  the  north.  The  arch  moved  westerly 
across  the  southern  sky  and  vanished  before  it  sank  to  the 
horizon. 

It  was  discovered,  some  twenty  years  ago,  that  when 
the  vapor  of  water  condenses  and  forms  fog  or  cloud,  it 
must  have  dust  particles  to  condense  upon.  Without  dust 
there  is  no  fog  nor  cloud ;  the  more  abundant  the  parti- 
cles, the  denser  the  fog  or  cloud  may  become.  This  dis- 
covery has  attracted  much  attention  among  meteorolo- 
gists, and  ingenious  methods  have  been  devised  to  count 
the  number  of  dust-particles  contained  in  a  measured 
quantity  of  air.  Thousands  of  such  countings  have  been 
made.  The  air  has  been  examined  in  many  countries  and 
many  places — over  sea  and  land,  on  mountains  and  in 
valleys,  in  cities  and  in  the  country.  Numerous  tables 
giving  the  numbers  found  in  various  localities,  have  been 
published  in  scientific  works.  It  is  enough  here  to  say, 
that  the  number  varies  greatly,  ranging  from  a  very  few 
in  the  purer  air  on  high  mountains  to  many  thousands 
of  particles  in  a  single  cubic  inch  of  city  air,  but  I  am  not 
aware  that  any  such  observations  have  ever  been  made  in 
any  high  latitude.  The  vast  arctic  region  is  mostly  cov- 
ered by  water,  ice  or  snow,  and  with  its  scanty  population 


Q 


ATMOSPHERE  283 

and  its  abundant  storms  to  wash  the  atmosphere,  the 
amount  of  dust  in  its  air  must  be  very  much  less  than  in 
the  air  over  more  densely  inhabited  countries  and  in 
warmer  climates.  A  few  years  ago  I  made  a  series  of 
observations  on  atmospheric  appearances  along  the  coasts 
of  Labrador  and  Greenland  and  in  Baffin  Bay  up  to  the 
Arctic  Circle.  All  the  phenomena  there  are  in  accord- 
ance with  what  we  might  expect  from  an  atmosphere 
containing  only  fine  dust  and  vastly  less  in  quantity  than 
is  found  in  all  warmer  latitudes.  I  made  similar  observa- 
tions on  the  aspects  of  the  sky  and  air  every  day  of  the 
Harriman  Alaska  Expedition. 

Westerly  winds  prevail  along  the  western  coast  of 
North  America  from  Mexico  northward.  Coming  over 
the  broad  Pacific,  they  lose  on  the  way  much  of  the  dust 
that  had  been  gathered  from  other  regions.  This  explains 
the  cause  of  the  very  clear  air  of  California  and  the  other 
Pacific  States.  Near  the  coast  the  air  when  dry  and  with- 
out fog  is  marvelously  clear.  From  California  northward 
to  Alaska,  forest  fires  later  in  the  season  often  make  a 
very  smoky  atmosphere.  As  we  steamed  up  the  inland  pas- 
sage northward,  the  blue  haze,  due  mostly  to  smoke,  rap- 
idly diminished,  its  softening  effects  upon  the  landscapes 
grew  less  and  less,  and  from  Glacier  Bay  on  our  way  out 
until  we  reached  Yakutat  on  our  return,  we  saw  practi- 
cally none  of  the  effects  of  a  smoky  or  a  dusty  atmosphere. 
We  sometimes  had  a  haze  when  the  air  was  nearly  satu- 
rated with  moisture,  but  it  was  never  a  blue  haze  —  always 
white  like  a  faint  transparent  fog.  When  the  air  was  dry, 
the  atmosphere  was  then  always  very  transparent  and  dis- 
tant objects  were  marvelously  distinct.  When  the  moon 
rose,  it  was  bright  and  white  and  without  color.  I  watched 
its  rising  several  times  when  it  was  as  white  and  clear  at 
the  horizon  as  it  was  when  it  reached  mid-sky,  without  a 
tinge  of  color  and  with  no  perceptible  diminution  of  its 


284  BREWER 

light.  I  have  in  mind  one  evening  while  on  the  way  up, 
the  half  full  moon  when  rising  seemed  poised,  as  it  were, 
on  the  very  summit  of  a  low  peak  which  was  but  a  short 
distance  inland.  The  dark  crags  of  the  peak  were  sharply 
cut  on  the  intensely  white  face  of  the  planet,  which  by  the 
contrast,  seemed  even  brighter  than  when  in  mid-sky.  A 
year  before,  I  had  watched  the  moon  rise  and  set  behind 
the  mountains  of  the  Mont  Blanc  group.  Although  it 
seemed  clear  and  bright  in  that  mountain  atmosphere,  yet 
it  was  not  so  white  as  we  saw  it  in  Alaska.  Mont  Blanc 
has  densely  populated  countries  on  all  sides  of  it,  the 
smoke  from  cities  and  towns,  the  dust  from  highways  and 
tilled  fields,  the  various  kinds  of  pollution  which  civilized 
regions  furnish,  affected  the  atmosphere  sufficiently  to  be 
seen  even  on  the  whiteness  and  brightness  of  the  moon. 
The  Queen  of  Night  keeps  her  whitest  robes  for  dis- 
play in  the  higher  latitudes.  It  is,  however,  only  fair  to 
say  that  on  our  way  home,  by  the  time  we  reached  Yaku- 
tat  the  forest  fires  had  already  begun  inland  and  the  moon 
rose  with  a  blushing  face. 

The  peculiar  clearness  of  the  air  lends  a  special  charm 
to  the  near  views  of  a  flower  clad  landscape.  Examples 
of  this  we  often  had  on  the  islands.  But  the  more  distant 
landscapes  lack  the  softening  shades  we  are  familiar 
with  at  home ;  their  beauty  is  of  entirely  another  kind  but 
not  less  interesting.  They  lack  the  soothing  quality  of  the 
landscapes  in  hazy  air,  such  as  we  have  in  warmer  cli- 
mates and  more  populous  countries,  where  landscapes  fade 
away  by  insensible  gradation  into  the  dreamy  distance, 
and  the  horizon  is  indefinite  and  mysterious.  In  Alaska, 
the  horizon  often  seems  wonderfully  close  to  us  even 
when  we  know  it  is  distant.  We  are  so  accustomed  at 
home  to  see  distant  objects  more  dimly  because  of  the 
haze,  that  we  think  objects  must  be  near  if  they  are  sharply 
distinct. 


BOTANIZING  ON  HAIJ_, 


ATMOSPHERE  285 

When  we  had  fogs  they  were  rarely  so  opaque  as  those 
we  are  familiar  with  at  home,  and  very  much  less  dense 
than  the  fogs  off  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New- 
foundland. It  is  probable  that  there  is  not  dust  enough 
in  the  air  to  form  sufficient  nuclei  for  the  quick  con- 
densation of  such  thick  fog  as  is  common  off  the  east- 
ern coast  below  Labrador.  The  fogs  were,  however, 
wet  enough  to  make  up  for  their  lack  of  opacity,  although 
not  so  wet  as  occur  on  Baffin  Bay  and  along  the  coast  of 
Greenland. 

It  is  the  dust  and  the  particles  of  ice  or  half  condensed 
watery  vapor  suspended  in  the  air  that  scatter  the  light 
and  make  the  atmosphere  seem  luminous.  Much  dust 
in  the  air  diminishes  sensibly  the  actual  amount  of  light 
that  reaches  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  also  changes  its 
character.  Therefore,  we  often  had  an  abundance  of  light 
on  cloudy  days,  in  fact  more  than  one  would  suppose. 
The  wonderful  clearness  of  some  of  the  photographs 
which  were  taken  by  the  party  on  cloudy  days  is  one  evi- 
dence of  this.  This  quality  of  the  light  in  Alaska  was  a 
factor  in  the  production  of  so  many  successful  photographs 
by  the  party  and  gave  many  of  them  exceptional  beauty 
and  excellence. 

As  to  the  clouds,  we  saw  none  with  rounded  heads 
(' cumuli'  as  meteorologists  call  them)  north  of  the 
Alaska  Peninsula  and  but  very  few  anywhere  along  the 
Alaska  coast.  Over  Bering  Sea  and  northern  coasts  the 
clouds  had  ragged  edges,  shreddy,  never  sharp  in  out- 
line —  none  with  rounded  heads  such  as  form  a  factor 
in  the  summer  sky-scenery  of  warmer  lands.  Both  as 
we  went  out  and  on  our  return,  a  few  cumulus  clouds 
curled  over  the  peaks  on  the  Peninsula,  but  the  clouds  that 
adorned  most  of  the  mountains  were  not  sharply  out- 
lined; they  sometimes  stretched  away  from  the  summits 
like  frayed  banners. 


286  BREWER 

Some  of  the  cloud  effects  were,  however,  especially 
beautiful.  Photographs  of  clouds  are,  as  a  rule,  very  un- 
satisfactory, but  many  of  those  taken  on  this  trip  show 
cloud  scenery  with  a  beauty  rarely  equaled.  The  lights 
and  colors  on  the  clouds  seen  in  the  long  twilights  of 
those  high  latitudes,  although  longer  in  duration  were  not 
more  brilliant  than  in  lower  latitudes. 

Rose  and  crimson  clouds  sometimes  lingered  in  the 
northern  sky  during  the  whole  interval  between  sunset 
and  sunrise.  They  were  very  brilliant  in  Bering  Strait 
during  the  short  bright  night  of  July  11—12. 

As  to  the  color  of  the  sky  itself,  it  was  never  dark  blue 
north  of  latitude  55°  or  56°  —  always  a  lighter  blue  than 
we  have  on  clear  days  in  middle  and  lower  latitudes.  It 
was  deeper  blue  than  the  sky  along  the  eastern  coast  of 
North  America  in  the  same  latitudes,  but  not  so  deeply 
blue  as  in  the  warmer  regions  we  are  more  familiar  with. 

The  colors  of  sunsets  and  sunrises  were  not  so  varied  as 
at  home.  This  applies  both  to  the  sun-glows  in  the  clear 
sky  along  the  horizon  just  after  the  sun's  setting,  and  to 
the  red  or  crimson  colors  of  the  clouds  later,  and  there 
was  little  to  distinguish  them  from  those  of  our  home 
experience,  either  as  to  shade  or  intensity  of  color.  The 
disk  of  the  sun,  before  setting,  was  never  reddened,  but 
had  varying  shades  from  white  brightness  to  golden  yel- 
low. Although  the  disk  never  reddened,  the  afterglow 
in  the  sky,  near  the  horizon,  was  often  rose-colored,  sal- 
mon and  even  orange.  Sunrises  came  so  inconveniently 
early  that  few  observations  were  made. 

Now  and  then  we  had  a  mirage  over  the  water,  when 
the  air  was  temporarily  still  enough  and  the  temperature 
right  for  them  to  form,  but  they  were  neither  so  striking 
nor  so  frequent  as  along  the  coast  of  Labrador  in  the  same 
months.  Nevertheless,  there  were  one  or  two  which  were 
beautiful  for  a  while,  and  which  linger  in  the  memory. 


EMERSON  GILBERT 

MEMBERS   OF  THE  EXPEDITION  ON  ST. MATTHEW    ISLAND 


ATMOSPHERE  287 

The  rose-colored  illumination  of  the  snowfields  on 
high  mountains  opposite  the  setting  sun,  called  '  Alpen 
Gluehn  '  or  <  Alpine  Glow '  in  Switzerland  and  which  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  beauties  of  snow-clad  mountains,  we 
had  in  great  perfection  on  several  occasions.  I  had  pre- 
viously attempted  to  make  comparisons  of  the  colors  of 
the  '  Alpine  Glow '  as  seen  in  different  regions.  The 
earlier  observations  are  recorded  only  in  memory,  but  of 
later  ones  careful  notes  were  taken  at  the  time  of  observa- 
tion. 

As  seen  on  the  snows  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  on 
the  mountains  of  southern  California  in  winter  and  under 
clear  skies,  the  glows,  as  I  remember  them,  were  more 
distinctly  rose-red  in  color  and  more  luminously  brilliant 
than  in  any  I  have  seen  elsewhere.  On  the  lofty  peaks  of 
the  Cascade  Range  later  in  the  season  and  when  the  smoke 
of  forest  fires  prevails,  they  are  much  less  luminous  and 
the  colors  much  duller,  sometimes  appearing  maroon 
or  even  brown  in  the  smoky  air.  I  have  seen  very  similar 
colors  on  the  Bernese  Alps,  viewed  from  Interlaken,  dur- 
ing a  very  dry  time  in  autumn. 

From  various  points  of  view  we  had  these  glows  of 
exceeding  beauty  on  the  mountains  along  the  coast  and 
on  the  islands,  and  their  colors  were  carefully  noted  dur- 
ing their  occurrence,  from  the  time  when  the  first  blush 
of  rose  began  to  appear  until  all  the  color  was  quenched 
in  the  twilight.  The  year  before  I  had  exceptionally  good 
opportunities  of  making  similar  observations  in  Switzer- 
land and  to  note  in  the  same  way  the  glows  on  the  snow- 
fields  of  the  Mont  Blanc  and  Monte  Rosa  groups,  and 
thus  can  the  better  compare  the  impressions  as  to  colors 
and  beauty,  between  the  phenomena  as  seen  in  the  dust- 
less  and  smokeless  air  of  the  Alaska  coast,  and  the  effects 
in  the  dustier  and  smokier  air  of  Switzerland.  The  color 
effects  in  Alaska  were  the  more  beautiful,  the  colors  more 


288  BREWER 

clear  and  brilliant,  and  the  tints  have  a  more  decided 
suggestion  of  blue  or  violet  in  the  red.  During  the  time 
of  greatest  intensity  of  color,  the  rosy  tints  pass  through 
what  might  be  called  peach-blow  color  rather  than  pure 
rose-color.  They  were  also  more  brilliant  and  of  very 
much  longer  duration.  At  times  they  seemed  almost  blaz- 
ing with  color,  as  if  self  luminous.  Then,  too,  when  the 
shadows  of  other  peaks  were  projected  on  such  sunlit 
snowfields  and  crept  up  the  slope,  gradually  quenching 
its  color,  the  contrast  between  the  rosy  illumination  above 
and  the  bluish-gray  shadow  below  was  much  stronger 
than  I  have  seen  elsewhere.  The  shadows  themselves 
were  bluish  gray,  and  the  blue  tinge  was  at  times  very 
perceptible.  Attractive  as  these  phenomena  are  wher- 
ever found,  I  have  never  seen  them  anywhere  else  so 
fascinatingly  beautiful  in  their  contrasts  of  color,  nor  so 
prolonged  in  the  display. 

On  July  6th  the  western  sky  was  cloudless  when  the 
sun  set  behind  very  snowy  mountains  on  the  Alaska  Pen- 
insula. The  illumination  was  exactly  the  reverse  from 
that  which  produces  the  '  Alpine  Glow.'  Before  the  sun 
touched  the  horizon  the  snowfields  directly  beneath  the 
disk  and  stretching  along  the  ridge  either  way,  glowed 
with  wonderful  brightness.  They  gleamed  brighter  and 
brighter  like  flame  itself  as  the  disk  neared  the  hori- 
zon and  slowly  sank  beneath  it.  The  glow  was  then 
quenched  with  a  suddenness  that  seemed  almost  start- 
ling. The  air  was  probably  at  that  height  very  dry, 
and  too  pure  and  moteless  to  be  of  itself  as  luminous 
as  is  common  along  the  horizon  beyond  which  the  sun 
usually  sets.  Hence  the  suddenness  with  which  the 
brilliancy  ceased  when  the  sun  was  actually  out  of  sight 
and  the  scanty  afterglow  in  the  sky  near  its  place  of 
setting.  It  was  one  of  the  most  striking  sunsets  I  ever 
beheld. 


SUN    AND     CLOUDS 


HOTOOHAPMS       BV       C 


LAST     VIEW   OF    THE   PACIFIC 


ATMOSPHERE  289 

There  is  reported  to  be  usually  more  fog  along  the 
Alaska  coast,  and  especially  later  in  the  season,  than  we 
found  during  the  months  of  our  cruise.  But,  during  that 
June  and  July,  the  aspect  of  the  sky,  the  sharpness  of  the 
views  and  the  other  phenomena  incident  to  the  character 
of  the  air  contributed  greatly  to  the  pleasure  of  the  trip. 
It  was  a  phase  of  Nature  so  unlike  what  we  have  at  home 
that  it  cannot  be  forgotten. 


BOGOSLOF,    OUR  NEWEST  VOLCANO 

BY  C.   HART  MERRIAM 


SMALL  spot  in  Bering  Sea  about  thirty  miles 
north  of  the  island  of  Umnak  and  forty  miles 
west  of  the  northern  corner  of  Unalaska,  has 
been  in  recent  years  the  seat  of  more  violent 
volcanic  activity  and  has  undergone  greater  changes  of 
form  than  any  other  part  of  North  America.  In  this  spot, 
early  in  May,  1796,  accompanied  by  thunder,  earthquake, 
and  steam,  a  volcanic  island  was  suddenly  thrown  up  from 
the  depths  of  the  sea;  and  again,  no  longer  ago  than  the 
summer  of  1883,  the  waters  were  once  more  convulsed, 
and,  shrouded  in  steam  and  fog,  a  companion  volcano  was 
born. 

OLD    BOGOSLOF. 

The  birth  of  the  new  volcano  seems  to  have  escaped 
observation,  but  the  terrific  disturbances  attending  the 
upheaval  of  old  Bogoslof  were  witnessed  not  only  by  native 
Aleuts  on  the  islands  of  Umnak  and  Unalaska,  but  also  by 
the  resident  agent  of  the  old  Russian-American  Company, 
one  Kriukof,  who  at  the  time  chanced  to  be  on  the  north- 
ernmost part  of  Umnak.  Kriukof  told  Kotzebue  that 
on  May  7,  1796,  a  storm  from  the  northwest  cut  off  the 
outlook  seaward;  that  on  the  8th,  when  the  weather  had 

(291) 


292  MERRIAM 

cleared,  there  was  seen  a  few  miles  away  a  column  of 
smoke,  beneath  which  at  evening  something  black  ap- 
peared. During  the  night  fire  arose  in  this  place  and  at 
times  became  so  bright  that  every  object  on  the  island 
could  be  clearly  distinguished.  An  earthquake  shook  the 
island  (Umnak),  and  a  terrific  roaring  came  back  from  the 
mountains  to  the  south.  The  rising  island  twice  hurled 
stones  as  far  as  Umnak,  a  distance  of  thirty  miles.  At  sun- 
rise the  earthquake  ceased,  the  flames  diminished,  and  the 
newly  risen  island  was  seen,  shaped  like  a  black  pointed 
cap.  A  month  later,  Kriukof  found  it  considerably  higher. 
Meanwhile  fire  had  been  thrown  up  continuously.  After- 
wards the  island  grew  both  in  circumference  and  height, 
the  flames  diminished,  but  steam  and  smoke  rose  in- 
cessantly. After  four  years  the  smoke  ceased,  and  after 
eight  (1804)  sea-lion  hunters  who  visited  the  island  found 
the  water  warm  and  the  ground  so  hot  that  no  one  could 
walk  on  it.1 

While  at  Unalaska  in  1817,  Kotzebue  was  informed  by 
a  trustworthy  Russian  that  for  a  long  time  the  island  had 
continued  to  increase  in  size  and  elevation  ;  that  its  cir- 
cumference was  estimated  at  two  and  a  half  miles  and  its 
height  at  350  feet,  and  that  for  three  miles  around  it  the 
sea  was  covered  with  stones  (doubtless  pumice,  which 
floats  on  water). 

Baranof  states  that  Bogoslof  was  again  visited  in  June, 
1814  (Grewingk  insists  that  this  is  an  error  for  1804)  and 
a  landing  effected  at  a  low  place  where  a  large  herd  of 
sea-lions  had  hauled  out  on  the  rocks.  It  was  then  found 

*In  the  above  account,  and  in  other  early  descriptions  that  follow,  the  language 
of  the  original  is  in  the  main  preserved.  Had  the  observations  been  made  by 
geologists,  the  words  '  fire '  and  '  flame  '  would  probably  not  appear,  as  it  is  well 
understood  that  the  bright  glow  of  a  volcano  is  not  fire  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
word,  but  the  incandescence  of  molten  lava  which  has  come  up  from  the  interior 
of  the  earth.  Real  flames  are  rarely  seen  in  volcanoes ;  the  supposed  flames  are 
usually  illuminated  clouds  above  the  glowing  crater.  The  so-called  smoke  clouds 
are  composed  of  fine  rock  dust. 


OLD   BOGOSLOF  293 

that  the  island  abounded  in  craters  from  which  small 
stones  were  being  constantly  thrown  out,  obstructing  the 
view  and  building  up  the  flat  portion  of  the  island.  Find- 
ing it  impossible  to  explore  on  land,  the  party  sailed 
around  it.  A  year  later,  a  second  expedition  found  the 
island  much  lower  and  its  appearance  wholly  changed. 

By  the  Aleuts  the  island  was  called  Agdshagok,  but  the 
Russians  called  it  Joanna  Bogoslova,  St.  John  the  Theo- 
logian, after  St.  John's  day  of  their  calendar. 

Langsdorf,  who  visited  Bering  Sea  in  1806,  gives  an 
account  of  Bogoslof  as  he  received  it  from  the  natives  at 
Unalaska,  and  then  briefly  describes  its  appearance  as 
seen  by  him  on  August  18  of  that  year.  He  was  told 
that  in  this  place  "had  long  stood  an  insulated  rock, 
which,  the  Aleutians  say,  was  always  in  the  times  of  their 
forefathers  one  of  the  great  resorts  of  the  sea-dogs  and 
sea-lions,  with  which  these  parts  abound. 

"In  the  year  1795,  the  islanders  remarked  a  great  ap- 
pearance of  fog  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  rock,  which 
did  not  disperse,  although  the  rest  of  the  atmosphere  was 
perfectly  clear;  this  gave  the  greater  uneasiness  to  the 
people  both  of  Oonalashka  and  Umnak,  since  they  con- 
sidered the  rock  as  one  of  their  great  magazines  of  food. 
After  vainly  expecting  for  a  long  time  the  removal  of  the 
phenomenon,  and  afraid,  uncommon  as  such  an  appear- 
ance was,  to  venture  near  it;  at  length,  one  of  the  Aleut- 
ians, bolder  than  the  rest,  resolved  to  visit  his  ancient 
haunt,  and  endeavor  to  catch  some  sea-lions.  He  soon 
returned  in  the  utmost  terror  and  astonishment,  saying 
that  the  sea  all  about  the  rock  boiled,  and  that  the  sup- 
posed fog  was  the  smoke  or  vapor  that  rose  from  it. 
Nobody  would  in  consequence  venture  any  more  near  the 
place;  concluding,  that  instead  of  sea-lions  and  sea-dogs, 
it  was  become  the  abode  of  evil  spirits.  This  continued 
for  a  considerable  time,  till  at  length,  about  five  years 


294  MERRIAM 

after,  the  fog  suddenly  clearing  away,  the  Aleutians,  in- 
stead of  their  rock  saw  an  island,  from  which  rose  a  high 

'  O 

peak,  in  form  resembling  a  chimney,  with  fire  and  smoke 
issuing  from  it  as  if  it  had  really  been  one." 

Continuing,  Langsdorf  states :  "  Some  inhabitants  of 
Oonalashka,  in  the  month  of  April,  this  year  [1806],  con- 
sequently not  a  very  long  time  before  my  arrival,  had 
visited  this  island,  going  in  three  baidarkas,  and  gave  me 
the  following  account:  They  were  about  six  hours  row- 
ing round  it,  which  supposes  a  circumference  of  about 
thirty  versts  [20  miles].  They  could  not  ascertain  the 
height  of  the  peak  with  any  precision,  but  were  of  opinion 
that  if  it  had  been  possible  to  climb  directly  up  to  the 
highest  point,  they  could  not  have  done  it  in  less  than  be- 
tween five  and  six  hours.  The  volcano  was  burning  on 
the  north  side,  and  the  lava,  which  they  represented  as  a 
soft  matter,  ran  down  the  side  into  the  sea.  It  was  im- 
possible to  land  on  account  of  the  heat:  on  the  south  side 
of  the  island  alone,  where  the  shore  was  not  so  steep,  and 
where  the  great  heat  of  the  volcano  was  not  so  much  felt, 
could  they  effect  a  landing.  They  endeavored  to  ascend 
the  peak,  but  found  the  ascent  extremely  difficult  on  ac- 
count of  the  steepness  and  the  number  of  clefts,  and  the 
sharpness  of  the  stones.  When  they  arrived  somewhat 
less  than  half-way  up,  they  judged  it  more  prudent  to  re- 
linquish the  undertaking,  as  the  remainder  of  the  way  was 
much  more  rugged,  and  the  ground  began  to  grow  very 
hot;  as  they  descended,  they  observed  a  great  deal  of 
smoke  and  vapor  rising  from  the  holes  and  clefts  they  had 
left  behind  them.  They  stopped  at  a  hole,  whence  issued 
a  great  deal  of  steam,  and  suspended  in  it  a  piece  of  the 
flesh  of  a  sea-lion;  after  leaving  it  there  a  short  time  they 
drew  it  out,  and  found  it  cooked  as  if  it  had  been  set  over 
a  fire. 

"  Becoming  extremely  thirsty,  and  not  finding  any  water 


OLD    BOGOSLOF  295 

fit  to  drink,  they  were  forced  to  return  without  any  farther 
examination.  .  .  .  According  to  the  farther  testimony  of 
the  people  at  Oonalashka,  the  form  and  appearance  of  the 
peak  vary  from  time  to  time;  sometimes  it  seems  high  and 
pointed,  looking  like  a  vast  pillar,  sometimes  lower  and 
rounded  at  the  summit;  sometimes  it  sends  forth  a  bright 
flame,  at  other  times  it  only  smokes,  and  the  smoke  is 
much  greater  at  some  times  than  at  others.  The  island 
seems  constantly  to  increase  in  circumference,  and  the 
peak  in  height." 

Then,  speaking  of  his  own  visit,  Langsdorf  says :  "  On 
the  i  yth  of  August,  in  the  afternoon,  we  left  Oonalashka, 
and  the  next  day  passed  this  new  island;  it  is  of  a  mid- 
dling height,  and  rises  quite  to  a  peak.  The  center  point 
has  on  every  side  the  appearance  of  a  pillar,  and  seems 
entirely  perpendicular.  On  the  northwest  side  are  four 
rounded  summits,  which  rise  one  above  the  other  like 
steps." 

On  June  2,  1820,  the  Imperial  sloop  'Good  Intent/ 
commanded  by  Capt.  Gleb  Semenovich  Shishmaref,  at- 
tempted a  landing  at  Bogoslof  but  was  prevented  by  heavy 
breakers.  Dr.  Stein,  who  was  on  board,  mentions  see- 
ing a  herd  of  sea-lions  at  the  southeastern  end  of  the 
island  (Cape  Sarichef ),  and  states  that  from  the  highest 
point  of  the  mountain,  which  he  named  Krusenstern  Vul- 
canus,  a  column  of  smoke  arose,  probably  from  the  crater, 
but  no  fire  was  seen.  From  a  cleft  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  came  a  waterfall,  a  bow-shaped  spring.  The 
island  was  then  described  as  "  a  cold  rock  that  had  ceased 
to  grow."  It  appeared  streaked  from  top  to  bottom  with 
clefts  and  gray  colored  lava  flows.  The  circumference 
was  given  as  four  nautical  miles,  the  height  above  the  sea 
as  500  feet. 

Grewingk  believes  it  attained  its  highest  elevation  in 
1814,  and  Veniaminof  states  that  it  ceased  to  increase  in 


296 


MERRIAM 


size  about  1823.  No  accurate  measurements  were  made, 
but  its  altitude  in  different  years  was  variously  estimated 
from  350  to  2,500  feet. 

Lutke  quotes  Tebenkof  to  the  effect  that  in  1832  the 
island  was  not  more  than  two  nautical  miles  in  circumfer- 


FIG.  i.     TEBENKOF'S  SKETCH  OF  BOGOSLOF  AND  SHIP  ROCK  IN  1832. 

FROM   THE    SOUTH. 

ence  and  1,500  feet  in  altitude.  It  was  pyramidal  in  form, 
its  sides  covered  with  sharp  crags  which  threatened  to  fall 
at  any  moment;  the  north  shore  was  ragged;  the  south  a 
steep  wall  from  which  protruded  a  low  tongue  of  land  on 
which  sea-lions  hauled  out.  A  verst  (^  of  a  mile)  north 


FIG.  2.  DALL'S  SKETCH  OF  BOGOSLOF  AND  SHIP  ROCK  IN  1873. 
FROM  THE  SOUTH. 

of  the  island  stood  the  high  crag  known  as  Sail  Rock, 
which  at  that  time  had  no  close  connection  with  Bogoslof.1 
Liitke's  atlas  contains  a  rough  sketch  of  Bogoslof,  made 
by  Tebenkof,  which  is  here  reproduced  (fig.  i).  So  far  as 
I  have  been  able  to  ascertain,  this  is  the  first  published 

1  Llitke,  F. — Voyage  autour  du  Monde,  etc.     Nautical  Part,  with  Atlas,  St. 
Petersburg,  p.  302,  Fig.  18,  1836. 


OLD    BOGOSLOF 


297 


figure  of  the  island,  and  no  others  appear  to  have  been 
drawn  until  1873,  when  Dall  made  six  outline  sketches 
from  different  positions.1  One  of  these,  from  essentially 
the  same  point  of  view 
as  Tebenkof's,  is  re- 
produced for  direct 
comparison  (fig.  2).  It 
shows  how  the  island 
had  shortened  and  how 
the  lofty  central  peak 
of  Tebenkof  (which  in  Langsdorf's  time,  1806,  was  still 
higher  and  more  precipitous)  had  weathered  and  disin- 
tegrated until  in  1873  it  was  but  little  higher  than  the 
northwest  end.  This  end  —  the  one  facing  Ship  Rock  — 
had  suffered  most  from  the  inroads  of  the  sea.  The  part 
which  in  Tebenkof 's  sketch  is  capped  by  the  first  and 
second  pinnacles  had  been  completely  torn  away,  thereby 


FIG.  3.      BOGOSLOF  AND  SHIP  ROCK  FROM  THE 
SOUTHWEST   IN    1873.      AFTER   DALL. 


FIG.   4 


OLD   BOGOSLOF   FROM   THE   SOUTHWEST   IN    1884.      FROM   PHOTOGRAPH 
BY   LT.    G.   H.    DOTY   OF   THE   '  CORWIN.' 


shortening  the  island  by  about  a  quarter  of  its  length. 
The  ocean  face  of  the  northwest  end,  as  seen  in  profile 
from  the  southwest  (fig.  3)  had  already  become  a  perpen- 

1  Dall's  sketches  were  made  with  unusual  care,  the  proportions  being  corrected 
by  horizontal  and  vertical  angles.  They  were  published  in  Science  of  January 
25,  1884. 


298 


MERRIAM 


dicular  cliff,  which  form  it  has  maintained  to  the  present 
day.     Its  summit  tapered  to  a  sharp  point,  as  shown  in 

two  of  Ball's 
sketches  (figs. 
2  and  3),  and 
the  crest  of  the 
entire  ridge 
broken 


was 


FIG.  5-   MARGINAL  OUTLINE  OF  OLD  BOGOSLOF  IN 

REVERSED  FROM  ROUGH  SKETCH  BY  W.  C.  GREENFIELD. 


1    7'  intopinnacles. 

•  T»  * 

In  1884,  as 

shown  by  photographs  taken  by  Lieutenant  Doty  of  the 
'Corwin'  (figs.  4  and  17),  the  top  of  the  northwest  peak 
was  less  sharply  pointed,  the  middle  peak  was  still  de- 
cidedly the  higher,  the  interval  between  the  two  had  so 
weathered  as  to  present  three  notches  and  two  prominent 
knobs  leading  up  like  great  steps  to  the  middle,  and  the 
series  of  pinnacles  shown  by  Dall  had  fallen. 


FIG.  6.  OLD  BOGOSLOF  FROM  THE  WEST  SPIT  IN  1891.  THE  NORTHWEST 
PEAK,  OWING  TO  ITS  NEARNESS,  APPEARS  HIGHER  THAN  THE  MORE  DISTANT 
MIDDLE  PEAK. 

In  1887,  according  to  a  rough  sketch  by  William  C. 
Greenfield  (fig.  5)  the  middle  peak  had  crumbled  until  it 


OLD    BOGOSLOF 


299 


was  lower  than  the  one  at  the  northwest  end,  and  the  lat- 
ter was  crowned  by  a  high  slender  pinnacle. 

In  1891,  the  date  of  my  first  visit,  Greenfield's  pinnacle 
had  fallen,  the  top  of  the  northwest  peak  had  become  a 
huge  bluntly-rounded  pillar  lower  than  the  middle  peak, 
and  the  depression  between  the  two  had  become  a  long, 
deeply  excavated  saddle  (fig.  6).  Seen  from  a  distance, 
a  sharp  peak  rose  from  this  saddle  (see  photogravure  at 
beginning  of  article). 

In  1895,  the  date  of  DalPs  second  visit,  the  principal 
peaks  had  undergone  much  additional  weathering  though 


?mzmz%&$$mm  $:v&vx5r 


FIG.    7.      OLD   BOGOSLOF   FROM    THE   EAST    SPIT    IN    1895.      FROM   PHOTOGRAPHS 

BY   C.    W.    PURINGTON. 

the  middle  peak  still  remained  highest,  and  the  saddle  be- 
tween had  changed  in  form,  as  shown  in  figure  7. 

The  degradation  of  the  peak  and  disintegration  of  the 
ridge  throughout  its  entire  length  have  been  materially 
assisted  by  its  extreme  narrowness  and  sharpness.  This 
narrowness  is  well  shown  in  one  of  Dall's  sketches  (fig. 
8)  which  gives  an  end  view  of  the  island.  In  describing 
it  as  it  appeared  in  1873,  Dall  says:  "It  formed  a  sharp 


300 


MERRIAM 


serrated  ridge,  about  850  feet  in  height,  very  narrow,  the 
sides  meeting  above  in  a  very  acute  angle,  where  they  are 
broken  into  a  number  of  inaccessible  pinnacles.  There 
is  no  crater,  nor  appearance  of  a  crater.  The  shore-line 
formed  a  tolerably  regular  oval,  pointed  at  the  southeast 
end,  having  its  longitudinal  axis  trending  NW  %  w  and 
SE  %  E  by  compass,  and  reaching  about 
three-quarters  of  a  nautical  mile  in 
length.  The  shores  are  mostly  precip- 
itous; but  at  the  southeastern  extremity 
FIG.  8.  END  VIEW  the  waves  have  accumulated  a  small 
OF  BOGOSLOF  (FROM  Sp[t  or  pointed  bit  of  beach,  of  talus,  on 

THE    SOUTHEAST)  IN         ....  fir  11  i 

1873.    BEARING   NW    wnich  in  perfectly  favorable  weather  a 
%    w.    DISTANCE   6    landing  may  be    had.      With  the  least 

MILES.       AFTERDALL.       „„„,,_    U ^isformed 


Less  than  half  a  mile  north  and  west  from  the  island  is  a 
perpendicular  square-topped  pillar,  about  150  feet  high, 
called  on  modern  charts  'Ship  Rock.'  Less  than  half 
a  mile  north  and  east  from  the  island  is  a  small  rock  ris- 
ing only  a  few  feet  above  the  water.  North,  east,  and 
south,  and  especially  east-southeast  from  the  point  of  the 


NW  by  W.  6#  miles.  W  NW.  7  miles.  N  by  W.  6  miles. 

FIGS.  9,  IO,  II.  BOGOSLOF  FROM  VARIOUS  BEARINGS  IN  1873.  AFTER  DALL. 
IN  FIGS.  IO  AND  II  SHIP  ROCK  IS  JUST  APPEARING  OFF  THE  FAR  END  OF 
BOGOSLOF. 

island,  scattered  breakers  were  observed,  extending  less 
than  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  shore.  The  crags  of 
the  main  island  afford  the  most  secure  refuge  to  thou- 
sands of  sea-parrots,  puffins,  auks,  and  divers;  and  sea- 
lions  (Eumetopias  stelleri)  often  rest  on  the  talus  point. 
It  is  visited  in  spring,  if  weather  permits,  by  native  egg- 


OLD    BOGOSLOF  301 

hunters  from  Unalaska;  but  in  1873  several  years  had 
passed  since  any  one  had  been  able  to  make  a  landing  at 
the  proper  season.  My  own  party  attempted  it  unsuc- 
cessfully in  1872  and  1873." 

Tlie  amount  of  wearing  down  of  the  middle  peak  and 
consequent  lowering  of  the  ridge  as  a  whole  between  1873 
and  1890  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Ball's  sketches  (figs. 
8  and  9)  with  a  photograph  taken  by  the  l  Albatross,'  in 
1890  (fig.  iz).1  The  apparent  thickening  of  the  base  and 
bluntness  of  the  summit  shown  in  this  photograph  are  the 
natural  result  of  the  loss  of  the  sharp  apex  or  crest  of  the 
ridge. 

In  1884,  according  to  Cantwell,  the  great  north  cliff  rose 
almost  perpendicularly  to  a  height  of  325  feet  and  was  in- 


FIG.    12.      OLD  AND  NEW  BOGOSLOF  FROM  THE  SOUTHEAST  IN  1890.      BEARING 
NW   BY  W.      FROM   PHOTOGRAPH   BY  U.    S.   FISH  COMMISSION. 

dented  at  the  base,  forming  a  cave-like  recess  which  gave 
it  the  appearance  of  leaning  to  the  north.  The  face  of 
the  cliff  at  that  time  is  shown  in  the  reproduction  of  Lieut. 
Doty's  photograph  facing  page  308  (upper  figure). 

On  the  evening  of  July  8, 1899,  when  the  Harriman  Ex- 
pedition visited  Bogoslof,  the  fog  rested  so  heavily  on  the 
summit  that  the  form  of  the  two  highest  peaks  could  not 
be  completely  made  out  (fig.  13),  but  the  lowness  of  the 
ridge  as  a  whole,  the  small  size  of  the  northwest  peak,  and 
the  depth  of  the  notch  separating  it  from  the  rest  of  the 
mass,told  too  plainly  of  the  rapid  wasting  going  on  and  fore- 

1  For  this  and  other  photographs  taken  on  the  Fish  Commission  steamer 
'  Albatross  '  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Charles  H.  Townsend. 


302 


MERRIAM 


shadowed  the  eventual  destruction  of  the  peaks,  for  it 
seems  safe  to  predict  that  before  the  close  of  another 
century  the  splendid  cliffs  and  bold  headlands  will  have 
disappeared. 

The  way  trifling  disturbances  hasten  the  general  down- 
fall was  pointed 
out  by  Cantwell 
in  1884.  He  fired 
a  rifle-shot  into 
a  flock  of  sea- 
birds,  "  myriads 
of  which  were 
perched  in  the 
clefts  and  niches 
of  the  rock,  and 
when  they  rose 


FIG.    13.      OLD  BOGOSLOF  FROM    POND  ON   EAST  SPIT, 

JULY,    1899.      FROM    PHOTOGRAPH   BY   HARRIMAN 

EXPEDITE.       THE     TOPS     OF     THE     TWO 

PEAKS    ARE   HIDDEN   BY   FOG. 


Small 


OI 


plCCCS 
WGTQ 
111 

displaced  larger 
pieces  until  a  perfect  avalanche  of  stone  came  down  the 
declivity,  scoring  great  ruts  in  the  hillside  and  tearing  up 


FIG.    14.      THE   NEW  AND   OLD  VOLCANOES    IN    1890,    FROM  THE    SOUTHWEST. 
FROM    PHOTOGRAPH    BY    U.    S.    FISH    COMMISSION. 

great  masses  of  stone,  which  were  dashed  to  pieces  on 
the  shore  below."  Thus  even  the  birds  may  hasten  the 
processes  of  nature  in  bringing  down  the  mountains. 


BIRTH    OF    NEW   BOGOSLOF  303 

NEW   BOGOSLOF   OR   GREWINGK.1 

The  towering  cliffs  of  old  Bogoslof  no  longer  battle 
alone  with  the  angry  storms  of  Bering  Sea,  for  close  at 
hand  a  new  island  has  risen.  Its  birth  was  not  witnessed 
by  human  eye;  no  earthquake  shock  marked  its  advent, 
and  the  date  of  its  upheaval  may  never  be  known.  It 
was  first  seen  by  Captain  Anderson  of  the  schooner 
'  Matthew  Turner,'  on  September  27,  1883,  and  was  then 
in  active  eruption,  throwing  out  large  masses  of  heated 
rock  and  great  volumes  of  smoke,  steam,  and  ashes,  which 
came  from  the  apex  and  from  numerous  fissures  on  the 
sides  and  base,  some  of  which  were  below  the  surface  of 
the  sea.  Large  rocks  were  shot  high  in  the  air,  and  falling 
back  into  the  water,  sent  forth  steam  and  a  hissing  sound. 
After  nightfall,  the  vessel  being  then  about  25  miles  to 
windward,  fire  was  observed  on  the  island.  A  month 
later  (October  27)  Captain  Hague  of  the  schooner  '  Dora' 
approached  within  a  mile,  passing  through  a  streak  of 
red  water  and  then  into  a  streak  of  green  water.  He  is 
quoted  as  saying  that  black  smoke,  like  that  from  burn- 
ing tar,  was  issuing  from  the  volcano;  that  it  threw  out 
flame,  smoke,  and  red-hot  rocks,  and  that  among  the  sea- 
lions  observed  near  by  were  a  number  which  had  been 
scalded  so  that  the  hair  had  come  off.  He  thinks  many 
were  killed. 

Both  captains  were  in  the  service  of  the  Alaska  Com- 
mercial Company,  and  on  their  return  to  San  Francisco 
were  interviewed  by  Prof.  George  Davidson,  who  re- 
corded in  *  Science '  an  abstract  of  their  statements.  It 
appears  that  both  vessels  passed  close  to  the  new  islet, 

1  Captain  Hague  suggested  for  the  new  islet  the  name  '  New  Bogoslof,'  and 
Dall,  in  an  article  published  in  Science  in  January,  1884,  proposed  that  it  be 
named  'Grewingk'  in  honor  of  the  Russian  Grewingk,  who,  in  1850,  pub- 
lished an  important  compilation  of  the  various  early  accounts  relating  to  Old 
Bogoslof. 


3°4 


MERRIAM 


approaching  from  opposite  directions.  Captain  Anderson 
first  sighted  it  at  daybreak,  September  27,  and  at  8:30 
passed  it  within  three  cables'  lengths,  heaving  the  lead  as 
fast  as  practicable  with  twenty  fathoms  of  line  and  finding 
no  bottom,  although  the  water  was  discolored  and  of  a  red- 
dish hue.  His  vessel  approached  from  the  east,  stood  up  to 
the  northwest,  tacked  ship,  and  passed  to  the  westward  — 


''  '•' '  ,,'b  fib.  V     •'-* 

~ 


|S5^%'   ^^J^^UBSSS. 
•ej/^  ?&       ff-_^:^^^ 


/-  ^c'F>^%  *r 

,    -  *•/      .-'<      S"  "•• 


%^--.^^"  ^ 
"Sj^-*^?-^^ 

~'^f^^t*'^ 

--^     ?>•;•     ,',# 


••<"«*cr^  ^^?*z^ 


^^iis£?J 

FIG.     15.      NEW   BOGOSLOF    IN    FALL    OF     1883.      DRAWN    BY    PROF.    GEORGE 
DAVIDSON   FROM   DESCRIPTIONS    BY   CAPTAINS  ANDERSON  AND  HAGUE. 


so  that  all  sides  of  the  volcano  were  seen.  The  captains 
agreed  that  the  new  island  was  larger  than  the  old;  that 
it  was  about  half  a  mile  northwest  from  it;  that  it  rose 
precipitously  with  a  rough  '  ogee  >  curve,  and  that  the  out- 
line of  the  east  side  was  broken  on  the  shoulder  and  at 
the  base  by  masses  of  rock.  Its  sides  were  said  to  be 
very  steep.  Great  steam  jets  poured  out  around  the  base. 


THE    NEW    VOLCANO 


305 


New  Bogoslof 


The  summit  was  hidden  by  fog  or  by  clouds  of  steam.  Its 
height  above  sea  level  was  differently  estimated  at  from 
800  to  1,200  feet.  From  the  description,  Professor  David- 
son made  a  drawing  representing  its  appearance  as  the 
captains  remembered  it.  This  drawing  is  here  repro- 
duced (fig.  15). 

Natives  of  Unalaska  assert  that  steam  was  observed 
about  Bogoslof  in  the  summer  of  1882,  the  year  before  the 
new  volcano 
was  first  seen. 
About  the  time 
of  its  appearance 
the  two  volca- 
noes on  Akutan 
Island  ceased  to 

smoke    and    for  f  /      S§^^^^^^  Bogoslof 

some  time  show- 
ed no  signs  of  ac- 
tivity. On  Oc- 
tober 20,  1883, 
between  the 
visits  of  Captains 
Anderson  and 
Hague,  a  shower  of  fine  volcanic  ashes  or  dust  fell  at 
Unalaska.  The  Signal  observer  then  stationed  at  Un- 
alaska reports,  under  date  of  October  22,  1883:  "At  2:30 
p.  M.  the  air  became  suddenly  darkened  like  night,  and 
soon  after  a  shower  of  mixed  sand  and  water  fell  for  about 
ten  minutes,  covering  the  ground  with  a  thin  layer.  The 
windows  were  so  covered  that  it  was  impossible  to  see 
through  them." 

Another  eye  witness,  a  Mrs.  Smith  then  residing  at  Un- 
alaska, stated  in  a  letter  that  a  very  remarkable  black 
cloud  appeared  in  the  north  and  soon  overspread  the  entire 
heavens,  settling  down  very  low  and  cutting  off  the  light 


I   MILE 


FIG.    l6.      CHART    OF  BOGOSLOF   IN    1884,  SHOWING   THE 
CONNECTING   SPIT  OR  ISTHMUS.      DRAWN  BY 
LIEUTENANT   CANTWELL. 


306  MERRIAM 

of  the  sun.     It  finally  broke  and  disappeared  in  a  shower 
of  ashes. 

The  first  landing  on  New  Bogoslof,  so  far  as  known, 
was  made  by  the  officers  of  the  Revenue  steamer  *  Cor- 
win'  (Capt.  M.  A.  Healy),on  May  21,  1884,  nine  months 
after  its  discovery.  Captain  Healy,  who  from  the  first 
appreciated  the  importance  of  accurate  observations  and 
records,  visited  the  volcano  four  times  during  the  years 
1884  and  1885.  To  his  intelligent  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject, ably  seconded  by  the  enthusiastic  efforts  of  his  offi- 


FIG.  17.   NEW  BOGOSLOF     SHIP  ROCK         OLD  BOGOSLOF. 

FROM  PHOTOGRAPH  BY  LT.  G.  H.  DOTY,  MAY  21,  1884,  FROM  THE 

SOUTHWEST. 

cers,  we  owe  nearly  all  the  trustworthy  information  and 
measurements  and  the  only  photographs  showing  its  con- 
dition and  appearance,  and  its  relations  to  Old  Bogoslof, 
in  the  early  days  of  its  history.  In  his  report  for  1884, 
Captain  Healy  states :  "  Lieutenants  Hall,  Doty,  and  Cant- 
well,  together  with  Assistant  Surgeon  Yemans,  were  de- 
tailed to  go  on  shore  and  gather  such  information  as  they 
could  concerning  this  remarkable  volcano.  Lieutenant 
Hall  made  a  flying  survey  of  the  island,  Lieutenants  Doty 


HEIGHT    OF    NEW    BOGOSLOF  307 

and  Cantwell  photographed  several  of  the  noteworthy  fea- 
tures, and  Lieutenant  Cantwell  and  Dr.  Yemans  made 
various  notes,  which  are  embodied  in  the  reports  I  had 
the  honor  to  forward  to  the  Department." 

These  reports  contain  reference  to  certain  photographs 
and  sketches  additional  to  those  published,  and  to  a  chart 
of  the  islands  which  likewise  failed  to  appear  in  the 
printed  document.  Through  the  courtesy  of  Captain 
Shoemaker,  Chief  of  the  U.  S.  Revenue-Marine  Service, 
the  archives  of  the  Revenue-Marine  were  searched  and 
the  missing  sketches,  including  Cantwell's  original  manu- 
script chart  (fig.  1 6),  were  found  and  placed  at  my  dis- 
posal. Lieutenant  Doty,  who  some  time  since  resigned 
from  the  service,  has  had  the  great  kindness  to  loan  me 
his  original  negatives.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  importance  of  these  records  of  conditions 
long  since  past  and  gone.  Cantwell's  chart  and  sketch 
'  A  '  (fig.  1 8),  and  some  of  Lieutenant  Doty's  photographs 
(figs.  4,  17,  and  three  full  page  plates)  are  here  repro- 
duced.1 From  them,  and  the  reports  of  the  l  Corwin,' 
the  condition  of  the  islands  in  May,  1884,  may  be  summa- 
rized as  follows : 

The  height  of  the  new  volcano  was  500  feet  or  a  little 
less.  Its  upper  third  was  cleft  by  a  '  great  fissure,'  some- 
times spoken  of  as  '  the  crater,'  extending  in  a  NE  and 
sw  direction  and  dividing  the  summit  into  two  unequal 
parts,  the  northwestern  of  which  was  much  the  larger  and 
higher.  The  eastern  part  was  estimated  to  comprise  only 
about  a  fifth  of  the  mass,  and  its  height  was  given  as  403 
feet.  The  summit  of  the  larger  peak  was  so  obscured  by 
clouds  of  steam  that  it  could  not  be  measured,  but  it  was 
estimated  to  rise  about  75  feet  above  the  smaller  one,  or 

1  It  should  be  put  on  record  that  the  data  on  the  originals  show  that  the  points 
of  the  compass  printed  under  the  photographs  of  Bogoslof  in  the  reports  on 
the  'Cruise  of  the  Corwin'  for  1884  and  1885,  are  almost  without  exception 
erroneous. 


308  MERRIAM 

at  most  not  exceeding  an  altitude  of  500  feet.  The  interior 
of  the  great  fissure  could  not  be  reached  or  seen  "  owing 
to  the  steam,  fumes  [of  sulphur],  and  heat  rendering  en- 
trance into  it  highly  dangerous  if  not  impossible."  The 
numerous  steam  vents  were  lined  with  thick  deposits  of 
sulphur,  and  the  escaping  steam  was  suffocating  and  nau- 
seating. It  was  also  found  impossible  to  ascend  the  main 
peak.  Steam  and  smoke  "  issued  not  only  from  the  crater 
but  also  poured  forth  with  great  violence  from  rents  or 
areas  in  the  sides  of  the  cone."  On  the  northwest  side 
Cantwell  counted  15  steam  jets  forming  a  group  along  a 
horizontal  line.  This  is  shown  in  a  reproduction  of  his 

unpublished  sketch 
4 A' (fig.  18). 

The  volcano  was 
covered   with   a    thin 
layer  of  ashes,  the  sur- 
-::^^~~~  face    of    which,  from 

FIG.  18.    NEW  BOGOSLOF  FROM  THE  NW  IN   the  action  ot  rain,  had 
1884.   FROM  LT.  CANTWELL'S  SKETCH  '  A.'      been  converted  into  a 

ON   THE   RIGHT,  THE  END  OF  OLD  ~  , 

BOGOSLOF   MAY   BE   SEEN.  CTUSt.          The     party 

found  it  very  difficult 

to  climb  the  slope,  sinking  ankle  deep  to  knee  deep  through 
this  crust  and  into  an  almost  impalpable  dust,  which  rose 
in  clouds  and  nearly  suffocated  them.  As  the  first  sum- 
mit was  reached,  the  heat  of  the  ashes  became  almost  un- 
bearable, and  Lieutenant  Cantwell  was  forced  to  pick  his 
way  over  rocks  whose  exposed  surfaces  were  cooler  and 
afforded  a  more  secure  foothold.  The  temperature  of  the 
sand  at  the  foot  of  the  cone  was  44°  Fahr.,  of  the  material 
halfway  to  the  top  191°,  and  in  a  crevice  near  the  summit 
was  so  high  that  the  thermometer  (which  was  made  to 
register  260°)  exploded,  and  the  solder  fastening  the  ring 
to  the  instrument  was  fused. 

The  old  and  new  volcanoes  were  connected  by  a  broad 


OLD    BOGOSLOF  FROM   CONNECTING  SPIT  NEAR  NEWVOLCANO 


NEW    BOdOSLOF     FROM     CONNECTING     SPIT     AT     BASZ      OF      OLD     BOOOBLOF 

BOGOSLOF    ISLANDS.    BERING    SEA 
MAY  21,1884 


MEASUREMENTS    OF    NEW    BOGOSLOF  309 

bar  or  spit  called  '  the  isthmus,'  which  at  its  narrowest 
part  was  326  feet  wide.  This  is  shown  in  Cantwell's  chart 
(fig.  1 6)  and  in  Lieutenant  Doty's  photographs  (fig.  17 
and  plate  opposite  this  page).  From  this  spit,  and  near  the 
base  of  the  new  volcano,  rose  a  tower-like  rock  87  feet 
high  with  a  slight  inclination  to  the  north — Ship  Rock 
(see  photogravure).  Barnacles  and  watermarks  were 
found  on  the  Rock  twenty  feet  or  more  above  sea  level, 
conclusive  evidence  of  recent  elevation. 

The  general  trend  of  the  islands  (or  island,  for  at  that 
time  the  two  were  connected  by  continuous  land)  was 
SE  by  E  and  NW  by  w. 

The  position  of  Ship  Rock,  from  observations  made  by 
Lieut.  J.  W.  Howison,  was  found  to  be:  Lat.  53°55'i8"; 
Long.  i68°oo/22//  west.1 

Heights  and  distances  were  determined  by  Lieut.  D. 
W.  Hall  by  means  of  angular  measurements.  They  are 
herewith  appended: 

Feet. 

Height  of  east  pinnacle  of  Old  Bogoslof 334 

Height  of  center  pinnacle  of  Old  Bogoslof 289* 

Height  of  west  pinnacle  of  Old  Bogoslof 324 

Breadth  of  base  of  Old  Bogoslof. 933 

Height  of  Ship  Rock 87.5 

Width  of  isthmus  (narrowest) 326 

Length  of  southern  spit 1 ,824 

Extreme  length  of  island 7>9°4 

Height  of  southeast  peak  of  New  Bogoslof. 403 

Height  of  southwest  peak  of  New  Bogoslof 475-500 

The  length  of  the  connecting  spit  is  not  definitely  given, 
but  Cantwell  states  that  on  leaving  the  new  volcano  a 

1  The  position  of  Ship  Rock  given  by  Stoney  is :  Lat.  53°55/s6.3// ;  Long. 
i67°57/i7.i4//. 

The  position  of  new  Bogoslof  given  by  Tanner  is  Lat.  53°54/. 

'This  is  obviously  an  error,  as  the  photographs  show  that  the  middle  peak 
was  the  highest  part  of  the  island  (fig.  5).  The  289  may  be  a  typographical 
error  for  389. 


310 


MERRIAM 


Bogodof 


walk  of  a  third  of  a  mile  brought   him  to  old   Bogoslof, 
which  would  give  the  spit  a  length  of  about  1,750  feet. 

On  May  28,  1884,  only  a  week  after  the  visit  of  the 
'  Corwin,'  Lieut.  George  M.  Stoney  of  the  Navy  arrived  at 
Bogoslof  and  spent  three  days  in  taking  soundings  around 
the  island.  His  report  on  the  subject  seems  to  have  mys- 
teriously disappeared,  but  an  abstract  of  it  was  printed  in 
'  Science '  for  November  7, 1884,  and  a  brief  memorandum 
entitled  '  Sailing  Directions  for  Bogoslof  Island  and 
Hague  Island '  is  on  file  in  the  U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office. 

Lieut.  Stoney  also  prepared 
a  chart  on  which  fully  150 
soundings  are  recorded.  This 
chart,  through  the  courtesy  of 
Captain  C.  C.  Todd,  Hydro- 
grapher  U.  S.  Navy,  I  have 
been  permitted  to  reproduce 
(fig.  19).  Stoney  states  that  a 
thermometer  inserted  an  inch 
and  a  half  below  the  crust 
rose  to  250°  Fahr.  in  a  few 
seconds  (the  air  temperature 
at  the  time  being  40°),  and 
that  a  stick  placed  against 
the  hot  rock  blazed  instantly. 
Many  earthquake  shocks  were  felt  on  the  schooner  at 
anchor,  and  once,  when  climbing  the  volcano,  "  a  most 
sensible  vibration  of  the  whole  mass  took  place."  "  Rum- 
bling sounds,  and  a  dull  roar  similar  to  the  discharge  of  dis- 
tant cannon,  were  heard  at  intervals;  and  though  flames 
were  seen  only  upon  two  occasions,  yet  this  is  believed  to 
have  been  due  to  the  little  darkness  of  the  season  at  that 
latitude."  The  summit  was  usually  hidden  by  masses  of 
black  and  whitish  smoke.  "  Near  the  base  of  the  vol- 
cano the  water  bubbled  and  broke,  as  if  boiling,  but  no 


FIG.    19. 


Bogcslof 


STONEY'S  CHART  OF  BOGO- 
SLOF IN  MAY,    1884. 


NEW    BOGOSLOF    IN    1884   AND    1885  31 1 

difference  was  found  in  the  surface  and  bottom  tempera- 
tures; and  at  the  anchorage,  where  the  same  ebullition 
was  apparent,  there  was  a  difference  of  one  degree  only 
between  the  same  points."  No  fishes  were  found  near 
the  islands,  though  repeated  efforts  were  made  to  catch 
fish  in  the  surrounding  waters. 

In  his  manuscript i  Sailing  Directions '  Stoney  gave  the 
rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  as  about  ten  feet,  and  described 
the  beach  as  steep,  with  six  fathoms  of  water  100  feet  off 
shore.  The  southwest  anchorage  he  found  much  the 
best,  having  a  gravel  and  fine  sand  bottom  and  regular 
soundings.  The  northeast  anchorage  was  not  so  good, 
having  kelp  patches  and  rocky  bottom,  with  irregular 
soundings.  "  The  water  was  bubbling  up  all  the  time 


FIG.  20.   OLD  AND  NEW  BOGOSLOF  IN  1884.   FROM  SKETCH 
BY  LT.  G.  M.  STONEY. 

while  at  this  anchorage."  The  sea  near  the  southwest 
side  of  Old  Bogoslof  was  filled  with  kelp  and  sunken 
rocks. 

In  the  fall  of  the  same  year  (Sept.  10,  1884),  on  the 
return  of  the  *  Corwin '  from  the  Arctic,  Captain  Healy 
revisited  the  island.  In  his  report  he  states  that  a  number 
of  new  features  attracted  his  attention,  but  does  not  say 
what  they  were. 

The  next  year,  1885,  the  *  Corwin'  visited  Bogoslof 
twice  —  first  on  June  19,  and  again  on  September  14. 
Captain  Healy  states  that  its  activity  had  somewhat  less- 
ened but  the  general  appearance  had  not  changed  since 
the  previous  year.  Both  peaks  were  inaccessible  on 
account  of  the  steam  and  fumes  of  sulphur  in  which  they 


312  MERRIAM 

were  enveloped.  Leaving  for  Unalaska  in  the  evening 
after  the  second  visit  the  vessel  sailed  around  the  north 
end  of  the  volcano,  which  in  the  darkness  presented  a 
most  extraordinary  spectacle.  The  summit  was  envel- 
oped in  a  bright  sulphurous  light  which  burst  forth  from 
rifts  in  its  side  and  shone  out  against  the  black  sky  in  the 
background,  making  a  scene  both  beautiful  and  impressive. 
The  next  record  is  a  sketch  made  in  1887  by  William 
C.  Greenfield  and  published  by  Becker  and  Dall  in  1898 
(fig.  21).  In  this  sketch  the  new  volcano  is  represented 
as  considerably  higher  than  Old  Bogoslof;  the  two  are 
connected  by  an  elevated  bar  which  appears  higher  than 
in  the  *  Corwin's  '  photographs  taken  in  1885;  Ship  Rock 
is  still  standing  and  of  considerable  height,  although  dis- 


FIG.    21.      ROUGH    SKETCH   OF    THE   ISLANDS    IN    1887,    BY   WM.    C.    GREENFIELD. 

integration  had  evidently  begun;  the  new  volcano  is 
steaming  from  three  principal  peaks,  and  from  a  vent  at 
the  northeast  corner  (which  in  later  years  became  the  one 
of  greatest  activity) ;  the  highest  peak  is  at  the  northwest 
corner. 

Three  years  later  (August  2,  1890)  the  U.  S.  Fish 
Commission  steamer  '  Albatross '  (Capt.  Z.  L.  Tanner) 
passed  within  three-quarters  of  a  mile  of  the  island,  but  no 
landing  was  made.  Captain  Tanner  states  that  the  day 
was  unusually  clear,  Makushin  and  the  highlands  of 
Umnak  being  distinctly  visible.  Ship  Rock  had  fallen  and 
its  original  position  was  marked  by  debris.  New  Bogo- 
slof was  enveloped  in  smoke  and  steam  so  dense  that  its 
outlines  could  not  be  accurately  determined,  but  its  alti- 


NEW   BOGOSLOF    IN    1891  313 

tude  was  not  far  from  400  feet  —  that  of  the  highest  peak 
of  Old  Bogoslof  being  370  feet.  The  islands  were  still 
connected,  standing  on  the  same  platform,  and  their  length 
collectively  was  given  as  a  mile  and  a  quarter  (fig.  I4).1 

The  following  year,  1891,  it  was  my  good  fortune  to 
visit  Bogoslof.  Prof.  T.  C.  Mendenhall  and  I  were  on 
our  way  home  from  the  Pribilof  Islands,  whither  we  had 
been  sent  as  Commissioners  to  represent  the  interests  of 
the  United  States  in  the  controversy  with  Great  Britain 
over  the  fur-seals.  We  left  the  Pribilofs  on  the  evening 
of  August  10,  on  board  the  *  Albatross,'  commanded  by 
Captain  Tanner,  whom  we  persuaded  to  return  to  Unalaska 
by  way  of  the  volcano.  The  night  was  densely  foggy,  as 
usual  in  Bering  Sea  in  summer,  and  the  early  morning 
brought  no  change.  The  ship  was  feeling  her  way  cau- 
tiously with  no  land  in  sight,  when  suddenly,  about  seven 
o'clock,  the  fog  lifted  and  we  saw,  directly  ahead  and 
hardly  a  mile  away,  the  bold  front  of  the  new  volcano. 
We  felt  a  thrill  of  excitement  as  the  precipitous  cliffs  of 
the  northern  end  broke  through  the  fog,  followed  by  a 
fierce  rush  of  escaping  steam,  whose  roar,  when  the  engines 
stopped,  drowned  all  other  noises,  not  excepting  the  cries 
of  the  myriads  of  seabirds  which  swarmed  about  the  rocks 
like  bees  about  a  hive.  A  little  farther  away  and  some- 
what to  the  left,  Old  Bogoslof  soon  came  into  view. 
The  relations  of  the  two  are  shown  in  the  plate  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  article,  which  is  from  a  photograph  taken 
from  the  deck  of  the  '  Albatross.' 

Before  anchoring,  Captain  Tanner  took  the  precaution 
to  send  an  officer  in  a  small  boat  to  run  a  line  of  sound- 
ings between  the  ship  and  shore.  Good  anchorage  was 
reported,  with  nothing  less  than  twenty  fathoms.  The  ship 
was  started  ahead  slowly,  but  immediately  grounded  on  a 

lThe  bearings  were  recorded  as  NW  by  N  and  SE  by  S  (magnetic). 
Tanner  in  Report  U.  S.  Fish  Commission  for  1890,  pt.  XVII,  p.  243,  1893. 


MERRIAM 


reef  or  rock  with  only  nine  feet  of  water  under  her  bow. 
The  small  boat  had  crossed  or  gone  to  one  side  of  the  rock 
before  beginning  to  sound.1  We  backed  off  without  dam- 
age to  the  ship  and  anchored  in  the  bay  on  the  east  side 
of  the  island,  when  a  number  of  us  went  ashore  in  a  small 
boat,  visiting  and  photographing  first  the  new,  and  later 
the  old  volcano. 

The  bar  or  isthmus  connecting  the  two  islands  (found 
by  the  'Corwin'  in  1884  and  1885,  by  Greenfield  in  1887, 
and  by  the  *  Albatross'  in  1890)  had  disappeared,  leaving 
only  a  short  spit  attached  to  the  southern  end  of  the  new 
volcano.  From  Old  Bogoslof  an  entirely  new  and  very 


A   &     •'•mm  j 


<FBre^P?3S5e5H^== 

&tt-^~**w*\Z^++<**!ii5S£ffy&P 

FIG.  22.   NEW  BOGOSLOF  FROM  THE  LONG  WEST  SPIT  OF 
OLD  BOGOSLOF,  AUGUST  II,  1891. 

long  spit  had  formed  on  the  west  side  and  extended 
westerly  for  about  a  mile,  leaving  an  open  channel  about 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide  between  the  two  islands  (as 
shown  in  fig.  22  and  also  in  my  chart,  fig.  23). 

The  shape  of  the  island  did  not  in  any  way  suggest  a 
volcano,  there  being  no  cone  and  no  true  crater.  The 
highest  point  was  on  the  north,  where  the  mountain  rose 

'This  may  have  been  the  remains  of  a  small  rock  shown  on  Sarychef's  chart 
in  1826,  and  mentioned  by  Dall  in  1873,  as  "  half  a  mile  north  and  east  of  the 
island  [Old  Bogoslof],  which  rises  only  a  few  feet  above  the  water." — Dall  in 
Rept.  Supt.  U.  S.  Coast  Survey  for  1873,  pp.  115-116,  1875. 


NEW   BOGOSLOF    IN    189! 


315 


in  a  precipitous  wall  from  the  sea.  This  wall  continued 
for  some  distance  along  the  west  side,  forming  a  line  of 
high  cliffs  with  a  narrow  beach  below  (fig.  24) ;  on  the 


FIG.    23.      SKETCH   MAP   BY   MERRIAM    SHOWING    SPITS   IN    1891. 

east  the  masses  of  rock  broke  down  irregularly  without  any 
beach;  on  the  south  the  slope  was  more  gradual  and  the 
island  flattened  down  into  a  broad  beach  which  stretched 


FIG.    24.      NORTHWEST   CORNER  OF   NEW   BOGOSLOF,    AUGUST    II,    1891. 

out  toward  Old  Bogoslof —  with  which  it  was  connected  the 
previous  year.  On  the  east  side,  particularly  a  little  south 
of  the  principal  steam  vent,  the  light  rocks  were  broken 


316 


MERRIAM 


and  piled  in  irregular  masses  and  appeared  to  be  under- 
going movement;  at  all  events,  huge  blocks  had  only  re- 
cently toppled  over  and  some  were  covered  with  a  light 
deposit  of  grayish  dust  which  we  took  to  be  volcanic  ash. 
The  new  volcano  was  enveloped  in  steam,  which  issued 
from  thousands  of  small  cracks  and  crannies  and  poured 
in  vast  clouds  from  a  few  great  fissures  and  crater-like 
openings,  the  principal  of  which  was  near  the  northeast 
corner,  only  a  few  feet  above  high  water  mark.  From 


FIG.   25.      IN  THE  STEAM,   NEW  BOGOSLOF,   AUGUST    II,    1891. 

this  opening,  the  shape  of  which  we  could  not  see,  it  rushed 
out  with  a  loud  roaring  noise.  The  place  is  shown  on  the 
right  in  the  photogravure  at  the  beginning  of  the  article. 
So  great  was  the  quantity  of  steam  that  it  completely  con- 
cealed the  upper  part  of  the  island  except  when  wafted  to 
or  fro  by  violent  gusts  of  wind.  Professor  Mendenhall 
and  I  walked  from  the  roaring  hole  where  this  steam  es- 
caped, around  the  east,  south,  and  west  sides  of  the  volcano, 
but  it  was  impossible  to  pass  around  the  towering  cliff  at 


NEW    BOGOSLOF    IN    1895 

the  north  end.  The  steam  was  usually  impregnated  with 
fumes  of  sulphur,  and  deposits  of  sulphur,  some  in  very  fine 
needles,  were  observed  along  the  margins  of  the  cracks. 
Most  of  the  rock  was  hot  and  pools  of  hot  water  were 
found  on  the  beach. 

Captain  Tanner  expressed  surprise  at  the  altered  ap- 
pearance of  the  volcano  since  his  visit  the  previous  year: 
the  connecting  spit  had  disappeared,  the  island  had  de- 
creased in  height  at  least  100  feet,  and  the  pinnacle  had 


FIG.   26.      SUMMIT   RIDGE  OF  NEW  BOGOSLOF,   AUGUST    II,    1891. 
LOOKING  DOWN  FROM  HIGHER   POINT. 

fallen  and  was  lying  in  huge  masses  on  the  steep  incline. 

Two  years  later  (1893)  Captain  Tanner  reported  the 
volcano  "  in  active  eruption,  as  usual "  —  by  which  he 
doubtless  meant  that  it  was  steaming  violently. 

In  1895  Bogoslof  was  visited  by  Becker  and  Dall  of  the 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  and  an  assistant,  C.  W.  Puring- 
ton,  took  several  excellent  photographs,  some  of  which 
are  here  reproduced.  At  this  time,  according  to  Becker, 


MERRIAM 

"  an  apparently  clean  passage,  nearly  three  quarters  of  a 
mile  in  width,  separated  the  two  islands  [fig.  27].  The 
new  island  then  appeared  to  be  not  more  than  some  300 
feet  in  height.  It  still  steamed  vigorously  though  not 
violently." 


FIG.  27.   OLD  BOGOSLOF  FROM  NEW  BOGOSLOF  IN  1895. 
FROM  PHOTOGRAPH  BY  PURINGTON. 

The  photographs  taken  by  Mr.  Purington,  particularly 
figure  28,  show  that  since  my  visit  in  1891  the  activity  of 
the  steam  vents  had  greatly  diminished,  and  the  top  of  the 
volcano  had  lowered  and  flattened  down.  Becker  is  in 
error  in  stating  that  this  flat-topped  form  had  been  as- 


FIG.    28.      NEW   BOGOSLOF   IN    1895   FROM   THE   SOUTHEAST. 
FROM    PHOTOGRAPH   BY   PURINGTON. 

sumed  in  1891,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  plate  at 
the  beginning  of  this  article  (and  also  fig.  26,  showing  part 
of  the  summit  in  that  year)  with  Purington's  photograph 
of  1895  (fig.  28).  One  of  Purington's  photographs  shows 
details  of  the  west  side  (fig.  29)  and  though  not  from  ex- 


NEW    BOGOSLOF    IN     1897 


319 


actly  the  same  point  of  view  may  be  compared  with  my 
photograph  of  the  same  side  taken  four  years  earlier 
(fig.  24). 

In  1897  Dr.  Leonhard  Stejneger,  while  on  his  way  to 


FIG.    29.      PART   OF   WEST    SIDE   OF   NEW   BOGOSLOF   IN    1895. 
FROM   PHOTOGRAPH   BY   PURINGTON. 

the  Commander  Islands,  passed  close  to  the  north  end  of 
New  Bogoslof  and  took  some  excellent  photographs,  two 
of  which  by  his  kind  permission  are  here  reproduced. 
They  show  the  boldness  and  precipitousness  of  this  part 


FIG.  30.      NEW   BOGOSLOF   FROM   THE   NORTHWEST,  JUNE  30,   1897.      OLD   BOGOS- 
LOF  IN   DISTANCE   ON   RIGHT.      FROM   PHOTOGRAPH   BY   STEJNEGER. 

of  the  island,  and  also  its  level  top  and  plateau-like  form, 
which  in  view  of  its  recent  mountainous  character  is  diffi- 
cult to  understand.  One  of  these  photographs  (fig.  30)  is 
from  the  northwest,  and  for  position  is  practically  identical 


320 


MERRIAM 


with  Cantwell's  sketch  '  A '  (fig.  18)  with  which  it  should 
be  compared.     The  other  (fig.  31)  is  from  a  point  a  little 


FIG.   31.      THE   ISLANDS   FROM   A   LITTLE   EAST   OF   NORTH,   JUNE   30,   1897. 
FROM   PHOTOGRAPH   BY   STEJNEGER. 

east  of  north  and  should  be  compared  with  the  photo- 
gravure at  the  beginning  of  this  article. 

The  Harriman  Expedition  (1899)  made  no  landing  on 
New  Bogoslof,  but,  as  shown  by  a  photograph  taken  from 
the  boat  by  W.  B.  Devereux  (fig.  32)  the  summit  then 


I 


FIG.  32.   THE  ISLANDS  ON  JULY   8,  1899,  FROM  THE  EAST.   NEW 
BOGOSLOF  ON  THE  RIGHT.   FROM  PHOTOGRAPH  BY  DEVEREUX. 

presented  the  flattened  form  mentioned  by  Becker  in  1895, 
and  shown  in  Purington's  and  Stejneger's  photographs. 


MATERIALS. 


Both  islands  are  wholly  volcanic  and,  according  to 
Becker,  "seem  to  be  composed  entirely  of  hornblende-an- 
desite,  with  some  included  fragments  of  diorite."  Becker 
(in  1895)  was  the  first  geologist  to  visit  the  islands,  but  pre- 


SHIP    ROCK 


321 


viously  specimens  of  the  rocks  had  been  brought  back 
and  reported  on  by  Dr.  George  P.  Merrill.1 

SHIP   OR  SAIL    ROCK. 

The  first  land  recorded  in  the  vicinity  of  the  present 
site  of  Bogoslof  was  a  huge  rock  seen  by  Krenitzin  and 
Levashef  in  1768  or  1769 — nearly  30  years  be- 
fore the  upheaval  of  the  old  volcano.  It  is  shown 
on  their  map  of  1780  in  the  form  of  a  small  pro-  FIG<33- 
file  outline  surrounded  by  four  or  five  crosses  indicating 
outlying  rocks  (fig.  33). 2  The  next  record  is  that  of  Cap- 
tain Cook,  who  on  October  29, 
1778,  "discovered  an  elevated 
rock  like  a  tower  "  near  the  same 
place.  He  says:  "We  must 
have  passed  very  near  it  in  the 
night.  We  could  judge  of  its 
steepness  from  this  circum- 
stance, that  the  sea,  which  now 
run  very  high,  broke  nowhere 
but  against  it."3  This  rock  is 
shown  but  not  named  on  Cook's 
chart.  It  was  afterward  called 
Ship  or  Sail  Rock,  and  the 

name    was    attributed    to    Cook,         FIG.  34.  KRUSENSTERN'S  CHART 

but  I  have  failed  to  find  it  in  his    OF  BOGOSLOF  AND  SHIP  ROCK,  PUB- 

LISHED  IN  1826.     (REDUCED  AND 
narrative .  RELETTERED  . ) 

1  Science,  IV,  p.  524,  Dec.  12,  1884  (brief  announcement).  Proc.  U.  S.  Na- 
tional Museum,  VIII,  pp.  31-33,  April,  1885.  Reprinted  in  '  Cruise  of  the  Cor- 
win '  for  1884,  pp.  45-46,  1889. 

1  Ship  Rock  as  shown  on  Krenitzin  and  Levashef's  map  in  1880.  Published 
by  William  Coxe  in  his  '  Account  of  the  Russian  Discoveries  between  Asia  and 
America.'  London,  3d  ed.,  1787  [ist  ed.  1780].  The  sketch  of  the  rock  was  re- 
produced (natural  size)  by  Dall  in  Science,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  90,  Jan.  25,  1884  ;  and 
(greatly  enlarged)  by  Davidson,  Ibid.,  Ill,  p.  283,  March  7,  1884. 

8  Voyages  into  the  South  Sea,  Vol.  VII  (Cook's  Third  Voyage),  p.  527,  1784. 
In  a  footnote  Cook  states  that  "  though  this  rock  had  no  place  in  the  Russian 
map  produced  by  Ismyloff ,  it  has  a  place  in  the  chart  of  Krenitzin's  and  Leva- 
sheff's  Voyage  "  above  referred  to. 


of 


322  MERRIAM 

Some  time  after  the  upheaval  of  Bogoslof  in  1796  a 
high  rock  was  observed  a  short  distance  to  the  northward. 
Kotzebue  states  that  when  in  Unalaska  in  1817  he  was 
told  by  a  reliable  Russian  that  a  rock  supposed  to  be  the 
Ship  Rock  of  Cook,  stood  about  100  fathoms  north  of 
Bogoslof.  It  appears  in  Krusenstern's  chart  published  in 
1826  (fig.  34).  In  1832  Tebenkof  sailed  with  full  can- 
vas between  it  and  Bogoslof,  and  described  it  as  a  high 
crag  rising  from  the  sea  about  a  verst  (^  mile)  north  of 
the  volcano. 

In  1873  it  was  described  by  Dall  as  "a  perpendicular 
square  topped  pillar,  half  a  mile  north  and  west  of  the 
north  end  of  the  island,"  and  was  shown  in  several  of  his 
sketches  (figs.  2,  3,  10,  n). 

In  1884,  the  year  following  the  upheaval  of  New  Bog- 
oslof, Ship  Rock  was  described  by  Lieutenant  Cantwell 
and  Dr.  Yeamans  as  a  towerlike  rock  87  feet  in  height,  with 
a  slight  inclination  toward  the  north.  It  stood  on  the  bar 
or  isthmus  which  then  connected  the  two  islands,  but  was 
much  nearer  the  new  than  the  old  volcano,  as  shown  in 
Lieutenant  Doty's  photographs  (fig.  17  and  plate  facing  this 
page) .  The  presence  of  barnacles  and  water  marks  twenty 
feet  above  sea  level  showed  that  it  had  been  recently  ele- 
vated; and  the  form  of  the  summit,  as  shown  in  photo- 
graphs and  sketches  made  by  Lieutenants  Cantwell  and 
Doty,  indicates  that  disintregation  had  begun  (see  plate 
facing  this  page). 

The  next  year  (1885)  it  was  apparently  unchanged 
(Healy). 

Two  years  later  (1887),  according  to  a  sketch  by  Wm. 
C.  Greenfield,  it  was  still  a  prominent  pillar,  but  its  top 
had  become  very  narrow  and  the  extreme  summit  had 
doubtless  crumbled  away  (fig.  21). 

In  1890  it  had  fallen,  and  its  site  was  marked  by  debris 
(Tanner).  This  debris  was  plainly  visible  at  the  time 


THE    SHIFTING    SPITS  323 

of  my  first  visit,  in  August,  1891,  and  is  shown  in  my 
photograph  of  the  two  islands  at  the  beginning  of  this 
article.  The  date  of  its  downfall  was  probably  1888  or 
1889.  Hence  its  known  history  covers  a  period  of  120 
years. 

THE    SHIFTING    SPITS    OR    BARS. 

The  East  and  Southeast  Spits  of  Old  Bogoslof. 

Projecting  from  the  east  side  and  southeast  end  of  Old 
Bogoslof  is  a  long  broad  spit  which  toward  the  cliffs  rises 
in  low  terraces  and  is  obviously  of  greater  age  than  the 
other  spits  about  the  islands.  While  it  has  undergone 
various  changes  of  form  and  extent,  the  character  and 
elevation  of  its  base  show  that  parts  of  it  have  been  in 
existence  a  number  of  years.  The  part  at  the  southeast 
end,  in  continuation  of  the  axis  of  the  island,  was  the  first 
to  appear.  It  was  observed  by  Tebenkof  in  1806  and  de- 
scribed as  cold  and  flat,  while  the  body  of  the  volcano 
was  still  hot.  In  1820  Doctor  Stein  mentioned  seeing  a 
herd  of  sea-lions  at  the  southeast  end.  In  1832  Tebenkof 
described  the  south  side  as  a  steep  wall  from  which  pro- 
truded a  low  tongue  of  land  on  which  sea-lions  hauled 
out. 

In  1873  the  spit  was  observed  by  Dall,  and  its  length 
was  estimated  as  not  exceeding  one-third  the  length  of 
Bogoslof — say  350  feet. 

In  1884  it  had  grown,  according  to  Cantwell,  to  measure 
1800  feet,  and  was  still  confined  to  the  end  of  the  island. 
On  CantwelPs  chart  (fig.  16)  the  axis  of  Old  Bogoslof, 
continued  through  the  spit,  is  too  nearly  east  and  west, 
while  on  Stoney's  chart  of  the  same  date  (fig.  19)  it  is 
too  nearly  north  and  south,  its  true  position  being  inter- 
mediate between  the  two.  Both  Cantwell  and  Stony  agree, 
however,  that  in  1884  there  was  no  spit  on  the  broad  east 
(or  northeast)  side  of  the  island. 


324  MERRIAM 

In  1887,  according  to  Greenfield's  sketch  (fig.  21),  the 
south  or  southeast  spit  remained  essentially  as  in  1884, 
and  the  drawing  appears  to  show  also  a  beach  or  spit  on 
the  east  side. 

In  1890,  judging  from  the  photographs  taken  by  the  U. 
S.  Fish  Commission  steamer  ' Albatross'  (figs.  12  and 
14),  the  southeast  spit  continued  and  the  east  spit  had  be- 
come well  established.  The  photograph  from  the  south- 
east (fig.  12)  shows  the  high  base  of  the  east  spit,  but 
owing  to  the  presence  behind  it  of  the  north  spit,  connect- 
ing it  with  the  new  volcano,  its  extent  cannot  be  deter- 
mined. 

In  1891,  as  seen  from  the  'Albatross'  when  at  anchor 
just  east  of  the  new  volcano,  the  east  and  south  spits  ap- 


FIG.  35.  OLD  BOGOSLOF  (ON  LEFT1)  AND  PART  OF  NEW  BOGOSLOF  (ON  RIGHT) 
AUGUST  II,  1891.  SHOWS  EAST  AND  WEST  SPITS  OF  OLD  BOGOSLOF. 

peared  as  one  long,  broad  beach,  rising  abruptly  in  a  ter- 
race about  midway  of  its  length  (fig.  35). 

In  1895,  as  shown  in  Purington's  photograph  from  New 
Bogoslof  (fig.  27),  which  is  a  nearer  view  than  fig.  35  and 
from  a  point  slightly  farther  west,  the  conditions  remained 
the  same,  and  are  more  clearly  shown.  Another  photo- 
graph made  the  same  day  (fig.  7)  shows  that  the  east  spit 
began  exactly  at  the  base  of  the  north  cliff. 


THE    SHIFTING    SPITS 


325 


In  1899,  when  visited  by  the  Harriman  Expedition,  no 
change  was  observed,  and  the  length  of  the  spit  was  esti- 
mated as  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  Mr.  G.  K.  Gilbert's  journal 
contains  this  entry:  "we  landed  on  gravel  one-fourth  of  a 
mile  or  more  from  the  cliff  of  Bogoslof  and  climbed  two 
gravel  scarps  on  the  way  to  the  cliff."  A  large  pool  was 
found  a  little  back  from  the  front  of  the  beach  (fig.  13). 
The  fog  and  lateness  of  the  hour  prevented  an  examina- 
tion of  the  southeast  spit. 

The   Connecting  Spit  or  Isthmus  (1884-1890). 
When  New  Bogoslof  rose  from  the  sea  in  1883,  it  was 
unencumbered  by  spits  or  bars  and  the  surrounding  waters 


FIG.  36.    BALL'S  SKETCH  MAP  SHOWING  BARS  IN  1895. 

were  free  from  breakers,  indicating  deep  water  all  around 

(fig-  is). 

The  following  year  (1884)  a  broad,  flat  spit  had  pushed 
out  from  the  south  end  and  reached  all  the  way  to  the 
base  of  the  great  north  cliff  of  Old  Bogoslof,  completely 


326  MERRIAM 

connecting  the  two  islands  (see  charts  and  photographs  by 
Cantwell,  Doty,  and  Stoney,  figs.  16,  17,  19,  20,  and  plate 
facing  p.  308). 

This  spit  or  isthmus  continued  until  the  winter  of  1890- 
189 1,1  when  it  was  washed  away,  leaving  a  broad  water 
passage  between  the  islands  (figs.  22  and  23).  The  only 
vestige  remaining  in  the  summer  of  1891  was  the  north- 
west end  which  then  formed  a  flat  beach  along  the  south 
end  of  the  new  volcano  (see  plate  at  beginning  of  article). 

The  West  Spit  of  Old  Bogoslof. 

In  1891  an  entirely  new  and  very  long  spit  pushed  out 
from  the  west  side  of  Old  Bogoslof  and  extended  westerly 
for  about  a  mile,  curving  slightly  northward  at  the  end 
(figs.  23  and  35).  Its  base  was  broadly  attached  to  the 
west  side  of  the  island  (fig.  6).  The  date  of  its  destruc- 
tion is  unknown,  but  in  1895,  according  to  Ball's  chart 
(fig.  36),  it  had  completely  disappeared. 

The  East  Spit  of  New  Bogoslof. 

In  1895,  according  to  Ball  (fig.  36)  a  new  spit,  dry  at 
ebb  tide,  had  formed  on  the  east  side  of  the  new  volcano, 
whence  it  extended  easterly  about  a  mile,  its  tip  curving 
to  the  north. 

In  1899,  when  visited  by  the  Harriman  Expedition,  the 
conditions  about  the  new  volcano  could  not  be  clearly 
made  out,  owing  to  the  fog,  but  from  a  line  of  breakers  it 
was  evident  that  a  slightly  sunken  bar  occupied  essentially 
the  position  laid  down  by  Ball  in  1895,  except  that  it 
curved  to  the  southeast  instead  of  the  northeast,  and 
closely  approached  the  old  volcano.  Ball  states  that  such 
spits  may  be  formed  or  destroyed  in  a  single  winter  storm. 

*It  was  seen  by  the  '  Corwin '  in  1885  (Healy),  was  sketched  by  Greenfield 
in  1887,  and  photographed  by  the  '  Albatross  '  in  1890  (and  mentioned  by  Cap- 
tain Tanner  in  his  report  for  that  year). 


PHYSICAL    HISTORY   OF    BOGOSLOF  327 

PHYSICAL    HISTORY.1 

The  known  history  of  other  volcanoes  makes  it  possible, 
with  moderate  and  legitimate  use  of  the  imagination,  to 
construct  from  the  records  here  assembled  the  physical 
history  of  this  locality.  Some  thousands  of  years  ago 
a  crack  in  the  earth  was  opened  deep  down  under  Bering 
Sea  and  lavas  welled  out.  Some  of  them  may  have 
flowed  over  the  bottom  as  liquids  until  they  congealed; 
others  were  doubtless  burst  into  fragments  by  the  expan- 
sion of  imprisoned  steam.  This  occurred,  not  once  but 
many  times,  until  at  last  the  accumulated  rock  made  a 
mountain  high  enough  to  show  its  head  above  the  sea. 
Then  the  forces  of  the  air  attacked  it  and  storm  waves 
beat  against  it  and  it  was  worn  and  washed  away,  till  there 
remained  above  water  only  a  pyramidal  rock  with  a  bit  of 
beach  or  spit  that  had  been  built  up  by  the  waves  from 
the  waste  of  the  original  island.  It  was  in  this  condition 
when  first  seen  by  white  men,  the  remnant  crag  being 
Ship  Rock.  In  1796  there  was  a  new  eruption,  breaking 
out  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  last,  so  as  to  form  a  separate 
island,  Old  Bogoslof;  and  this  in  turn  was  attacked  by  the 
elements  and  rapidly  reduced  in  area.  Yet  another  erup- 
tion, in  1883,  took  place  on  the  opposite  side  of  Ship  Rock, 
creating  still  a  third  island,  New  Bogoslof;  all  three  stand- 
ing on  the  submarine  mound  or  mountain  that  previous 
eruptions  had  built. 

Since  then  all  changes,  except  a  slight  upheaval,  have 
been  wrought  by  storm  and  sea.  The  islands  have  been 
gnawed  about  the  base  until  girt  by  steep  cliffs.  Ashes 
and  loose  rocks  have  been  washed  down  to  the  sea,  leav- 
ing the  firmer  masses  as  towers  and  peaks;  some  of  these 
have  afterwards  been  sapped  and  have  fallen;  and  the  out- 
lines have  suffered  almost  kaleidoscopic  changes  from  year 

1  This  note  on  the  physical  history  of  Bogoslof  was  prepared  at  my  request  by 
G.  K.  Gilbert.— C.  H.  M. 


328  MERRIAM 

to  year.  From  the  abundant  debris  the  sea  waves  have 
built  large  spits  and  bars,  shifting  them  from  place  to  place 
as  each  succeeding  great  storm  came  from  a  new  direction. 
Storms  from  the  northwest  built  out  a  spit  from  the  lee 
of  New  Bogoslof  till  it  joined  the  shore  of  Old  Bogo- 
slof,  reducing  the  group  to  a  single  island.  This  spit,  or 
isthmus,  included  Ship  Rock  and  prolonged  the  life  of 
that  remnant  by  protecting  it  from  the  breakers.  Then  a 
storm  from  the  east  breached  the  spit  between  Ship  Rock 
and  Old  Bogoslof  and  washed  the  greater  part  of  it  away, 
but  built  a  great  spit  on  the  northwest  side  of  Old  Bogoslof; 
and  this  in  turn  was  removed  by  westerly  storms,  which 
made  two  other  spits,  trailing  a  little  south  of  east  from  the 
surviving  islands.  In  1895  there  was  a  clear  deep  pas- 
sage between  the  two,  but  in  1899  their  ends  had  been  con- 
nected by  a  submerged  bar,  fully  half  a  mile  to  the  east  of 
the  previous  bar. 

So  rapid  is  the  demolition  of  the  islands  that  their  present 
appearance  tells  little  or  nothing  of  their  original  forms; 
and  their  complete  destruction  is  but  a  question  of  time. 
One  might  predict  that  in  the  next  century  the  name  Bog- 
oslof would  attach  only  to  a  reef  or  a  shoal,  were  it  not  for 
the  possibility  of  new  eruptions.  The  pulse  of  the  volcano 
is  so  slow  that  we  have  noted  only  two  beats  in  more  than  a 
century  of  observation,  but  such  sluggishness  should  not  be 
taken  as  a  symptom  of  death,  or  even  decline,  for  volcanic 
organisms  are  characteristically  spasmodic  in  their  activity. 
Long  before  the  sea  has  reestablished  its  perfect  sway  the 
arteries  of  the  mountain  may  again  be  opened  and  a  new 
and  larger  island  put  forth  to  contest  its  supremacy. 

ANIMAL    AND    PLANT   LIFE    ON   BOGOSLOF. 

Plants. 

Chamisso,  in  his  account  of  the  Botany  of  the  Kotzebue 
Expedition,  states  that  in  1817,  according  to  reports,  vege- 


BIRDS    OF    BOGOSLOF 


329 


tation  was  beginning  to  appear  on  Bogoslof.1  If  not  an 
error,  this  report  must  have  referred  to  very  lowly  forms, 
for  at  the  time  of  my  first  visit  (1891)  I  particularly  noted 
the  absence  of  vegetation.  It  is  true  that  I  examined  only 
the  cliffs  and  the  new  spit  on  the  west,  and  not  the  old 
spit  on  the  southeast  where  seeds  of  plants  have  had  the 
longest  chance  to  grow. 

When  the  Harriman  Expedition  landed  on  the  east  spit 
July  8,  1899,  we  were  accompanied  by  one  of  our  bota- 
nists, Mr.  F.  V.  Coville,  who  made  it  his  special  business 
to  search  for  plants.  He  found,  besides  an  alga,  only  a 
single  specimen  of  a  small 
umbellifer  and  one  or  two 
specimens  of  an  inconspic- 
uous beach  plant. 


Birds. 

From  early  times  Old 
Bogoslof  has  been  the  re- 
sort of  countless  multitudes 
of  seabirds,  mainly  murres 
or  '  arries,'  and  the  new 
volcano  had  not  yet  cooled 
when  the  vast  hordes  be- 
gan to  take  possession.  At 
the  time  of  my  first  visit 
(August  n,  1891)  they 
stood  by  thousands  on  pro- 
jecting points  and  ledges, 
wherever  the  rocks  were 
not  too  hot,  and  hundreds  of  their  eggs,  in  every  stage 
from  fresh  to  hatching,  and  young  in  various  conditions  of 
early  growth  were  observed.  Whether  or  not  they  relied 
on  the  warmth  of  the  rocks  to  assist  in  incubation,  and  in 

1Kotzebue,  Entdeckungs-Reise,  III,  p.  166,  1821. 


FIG.    37.      MURRES. 


33° 


MERRIAM 


consequence  remained  away  for  longer  periods  than  usual, 
was  not  ascertained.  Many  sought  the  steam-enshrouded 
crags,  where,  when  the  vapor  clouds  were  momentarily 
blown  aside  by  the  wind,  we  repeatedly  saw  thousands 
serenely  standing  side  by  side  as  if  enveloped  in  ordinary 
fog.  It  seemed  remarkable  that  birds  should  voluntarily 
take  up  quarters  in  places  where  hot  steam  and  fumes  of 
sulphur  were  almost  suffocating.  Some,  indeed,  appeared 
to  have  met  their  death  from  this  cause,  for  we  picked  up 
on  the  rocks  below  a  number  of  dead  birds  that  bore  no 
sign  of  external  injury.  Lieutenant  Stoney,  speaking  of 

the  murres  he  saw 
about  the  islands  the 
last  of  May,  1884, 
said  that  "  such  as 
flew  into  the  cloud 
of  steam  and  smoke 
of  the  belching  vol- 
cano, as  many  did, 
immediately  per- 
ished." 


FIG.  38.    MURRES'  EGGS. 


But  great  as  were  the  multitudes  of  murres  on  the  new 
volcano,  their  numbers  were  insignificant  compared  with 
those  on  Old  Bogoslof,  where  every  available  inch  of 
standing  room  was  occupied.  Each  bird  stood  over  its 
single  egg,  and  when  suddenly  frightened,  as  by  the  dis- 
charge of  a  gun,  started  off,  carrying  its  big  egg  between 
its  legs,  and  when  a  short  distance  away  letting  it  drop,  so 
that  the  report  of  the  gun  and  the  launching  into  the  air  of 
the  birds  were  followed  by  a  shower  of  many-colored  eggs. 

When  the  Harriman  Expedition  visited  Bogoslof  on  the 
evening  of  July  8,  1899,  flocks  of  murres  on  their  way  to  the 
islands  began  to  pass  the  ship  while  we  were  still  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  miles  away.  They  became  more  and  more  fre- 
quent until  in  a  short  time  they  formed  a  continuous  stream. 


BOGOSLOF    MURRES  331 

The  fog  was  thick  all  the  way  —  so  thick  that  we  could 
see  only  such  birds  as  actually  passed  over  or  very 
close  to  the  ship  —  and  yet  the  compass  showed  that  their 
course  was  laid  direct  for  the  volcanoes.  How  they 
found  their  way  is  a  mystery  not  yet  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained. As  we  neared  the  islands  their  numbers  in- 
creased until  the  air  was  full  of  them,  coming  from  differ- 
ent directions  and  all  moving  in  straight  courses  to  the 
cliffs.  When  finally  the  ship  hove  to,  and  we  set  out  in  a 
small  boat  for  shore,  the  water  was  dotted  with  them,  and 
some  allowed  us  to  approach  so  near  that  we  almost 
caught  them  in  our  hands.  On  landing,  the  sea-lions  be- 
came at  once  the  objects  of  absorbing  interest,  but  still  we 
could  not  help  noticing  the  great  swarms  of  murres  which 
continued  coming  to  the  cliffs.  When  one  of  our  col- 
lectors fired  his  gun  the  multitudes  that  shot  out  into  the 
air  and  circled  round  the  island  formed  a  dense  cloud 
which  cut  off  the  light  and  made  a  roaring  noise  so  loud 
that  it  drowned  even  the  bellowing  of  the  sea-lions.  And 
yet,  after  their  departure,  the  cliffs  seemed  as  completely 
peopled  as  before — so  inconceivably  great  were  their 
numbers. 

In  the  case  of  most  forms  of  animal  life  the  increase  of 
the  species  is  checked  by  enemies  and  by  the  limitations 
of  the  food  supply,  but  in  the  case  of  the  murres  in  Ber- 
ing Sea,  enemies  are  scarce,  and  the  ocean  seems  to  pro- 
vide an  inexhaustible  store  of  food,  so  that  the  only 
apparent  check  to  extravagant  multiplication  is  the  limit 
of  available  nesting  places.  And  since  the  bird's  require- 
ments in  this  direction  are  easily  satisfied  —  a  shelf  or  point 
of  rock  three  or  four  inches  square  answering  every  need 
—  the  numbers  already  attained  are  almost  beyond  belief. 

Two  kinds  of  murres  are  common  in  Bering  Sea,  but 
the  six  specimens  obtained  by  me  on  Bogoslof,  August  n, 
1891,  and  also  the  six  secured  by  Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher  on 


332  MERRIAM 

July  8,  1899,  all  proved  to  be  the  Pallas  murre  (  Uria  lom- 
via  arra).  A  few  other  birds  are  known  from  the  islands. 
Two  horned  puffins  {Fratercula  corniculata)  and  a  flock 
of  kitti wakes  were  seen  by  me  in  1891;  and  Cantwell,  in 
May,  1884,  reported  puffins  in  great  numbers,  and  saw  also 
numbers  of  harlequin  ducks,  gulls,  and  kittiwakes,  and 
found  a  dead  albatross  on  the  beach. 

Sea-lions. 

The  only  mammal  known  from  Bogoslof  is  the  northern 
or  Steller  sea-lion  (Eumetopias stelleri}  of  which  a  large 
colony  has  throughout  the  century  regularly  resorted  to 
the  low  ground  on  the  southeast  side  of  the  old  volcano. 
Langsdorf,  who  visited  Bogoslof  in  1806,  was  told  by  the 
native  Aleuts  at  Unalaska  that  long  before  the  upheaval 
of  the  volcano  (in  1796)  there  had  stood  near  the  same 
place  an  isolated  rock  which  from  the  time  of  their  fore- 
fathers had  always  been  one  of  the  greatest  resorts  of  sea- 
dogs  and  sea-lions. 

Kriukof,  Agent  of  the  Russian-American  Fur  Company 
at  Unalaska,  told  Kotzebue  in  1817  that  in  1804  a  party  of 
native  hunters  visited  Bogoslof  for  sea-lions;  and  Baranof 
states  that  in  1814  (which  date  Grewingk  insists  is  an 
error  for  1804)  a  landing  was  made  at  a  low  place  where 
a  herd  of  these  animals  had  hauled  out  on  the  rocks. 

In  June,  1820,  they  were  seen  by  Doctor  Stein,  in  1832 
by  Tebenkof,  and  in  1840  were  reported  as  abundant  by 
Veniaminof. 

The  eruption  of  New  Bogoslof  in  1883  is  said  to  have 
destroyed  many  sea-lions.  Captain  Hague,  who  visited 
the  islands  on  October  27  of  that  year,  is  quoted  as  stat- 
ing that  he  saw  many  of  the  survivors  which  had  been  so 
badly  scalded  that  the  hair  had  come  off. 

Cantwell,  who  explored  the  island  very  thoroughly  in 
May,  1884,  states :  "  Several  herds  of  sea-lions  were  found 


SEA    LIONS 


333 


on  the  beaches  and  on  the  rocks  of  the  island.  They 
evinced  no  fear  of  our  party  until  fired  into,  when  they 
entered  the  water  and  followed  us  from  point  to  point, 
evidently  viewing  our  intrusion  with  the  greatest  curiosity 
and  astonishment."  Stoney,  who  was  there  a  week  later, 
found  hundreds  of  sea-lions  on  the  east  spit  and  on  the 
rocks  about  the  base  of  the  old  volcano.  They  were  at 


SEA   LIONS. 


the  same  place  when  it  was  visited  by  the  'Albatross'  in 
August,  1891. 

When  a  boat  from  the  Harriman  Expedition  carried  a 
small  party  to  the  east  spit  on  the  evening  of  July  8,  1899, 
sea-lions  were  the  most  conspicuous  and  imposing  objects 
seen.  They  were  scattered  thickly  along  the  shore  and 
as  we  drew  near  became  restless  and  began  to  show  signs 
of  alarm.  Most  of  the  cows  took  to  water,  while  the  bulls 
bellowed  and  roared  and  moved  down  to  the  beach.  Ow- 
ing to  the  surf  we  were  compelled  to  land  at  a  particular 


334  MERRIAM 

spot  where  a  number  of  huge  yellow  bulls,  as  big  as  oxen 
and  much  longer,  were  congregated.  As  the  boat  grated 
on  the  gravel  some  of  them  came  towards  us,  bellowing 
fearfully  and  moving  in  a  clumsy  ambling  lope.  While 
they  would  not  turn  aside  to  attack  a  man,  woe  betide  the 
unfortunate  who  falls  in  their  path  on  their  mad  rush  to  the 
sea!  In  dragging  the  boat  up  through  the  breakers  to  a 
safe  place  on  shore  we  were  careful  to  keep  out  of  the 
way  of  those  who  had  made  up  their  minds  to  leave  by 
the  way  we  had  come.  Those  a  little  farther  off  stared  at 
us  and  roared,  swinging  their  massive  heads  from  side  to 
side,  and  as  I  ran  toward  them  with  my  camera,  most  of 
them  took  fright  and  made  off —  some  into  the  sea,  others 
into  a  pond  a  few  rods  back  from  shore  —  but  a  few  old 
giants,  when  I  was  within  about  20  feet  of  them,  made  a 
stand.  I  did  not  dispute  the  ground  with  them,  but  waited 
till  they  moved  slowly  off. 

Most  of  the  young,  accompanied  by  more  than  a  hun- 
dred cows  and  as  many  bulls,  took  refuge  in  the  pond  near 
shore.  They  were  now  thoroughly  frightened  and  rushed 
through  the  shallow  pool  in  wild  confusion,  making  the 
water  surge  and  boil  and  throwing  the  spray  high  in  the 
air.  Finally,  as  if  by  concerted  action,  all  of  the  old  sea- 
lions  made  a  break  for  the  far  side  of  the  pond  and  stam- 
peded for  the  sea,  where  another  absorbing  scene  was  being 
enacted.  Dozens  of  adults,  apparently  cows  and  middle 
aged  males,  were  sporting  like  porpoises  in  the  breakers, 
moving  side  by  side  in  schools  of  six  or  eight  and  shooting 
completely  out  of  the  water.  These  small  squads  behaved 
like  well  drilled  soldiers,  keeping  abreast,  breaking  water 
simultaneously,  making  their  flying  leap  in  the  air  side  by 
side,  and  taking  the  next  wave  together.  This  they  re- 
peated again  and  again,  evidently  finding  it  great  sport. 
It  was  a  marvelous  sight  and  one  to  be  long  remembered.- 
Indeed  our  momentary  stop  at  Bogoslof  in  the  fog  and 


BIBLIOGRAPHY    OF   BOGOSLOF  335 

rain  of  that  July  evening  proved  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing and  exciting  events  of  the  cruise. 


PRINCIPAL  PAPERS   ON  BOGOSLOF. 

This  is  not  a  complete  bibliography  but  contains  merely  the 
titles  of  papers  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  the  accompanying 
article. 

Becker,  George  F.      Reconnaissance  of  the  gold  fields  of  southern 

Alaska.     i8th  Annual  Report  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  1896- 

97,  Part  III,  pp.  15,  21,  and  25-28,  1898. 
Cantwell,  Lieut,  [now  Capt.],  John  C.,  U.  S.  Revenue  Marine.     De- 

scription of  Bogoslov  Island  and  the  new  volcano  in  Bering  Sea. 

In  Cruise  of  the  Revenue  Marine  steamer  Corwin  in  the  Arctic 

Ocean  in  1884,  PP-  39-4r>  pis-     1889. 
Cook,  Capt.  James.    Voyages  into  the  South  Sea.     (3d  Voyage),  Vol. 

VII,  p.  527,  1784. 
Coze,  William.     Account  of  the  Russian  Discoveries  between  Asia 

and  America.     London.     3d  Ed.  1787  [ist  Ed.  1780].     Con- 

tains Krenitzin  and  Levashef's  map  with  profile  of  Ship  Rock. 
Dall,  Wm.  H.     Report  of  geographical  and  hydrographical  explora- 

tions on  the  coast  of  Alaska.     Report  Supt.  U.  S.  Coast  Survey 

for  1873.    Appendix  No.  n,  pp.  115-116,  119,  and  122,  1875. 

-  A  New  Volcano  Island  in  Alaska.    Science,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  89- 
93,  Jan.  25,  1884. 

-  The  New  Bogosloff  Volcano.    Science,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  138-139, 
August  15,  1884. 

-  Further  Notes  on  Bogosloff  Island.    Science,  Vol.  V,  pp.  32- 

33^  Jan-  9» 


Davidson,  George.      The  New  Bogosloff   Volcano  in  Bering  Sea. 

Science,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  282-286,  March  7,  1884. 
Diller,  J.  S.     Lava  from  the  New  Volcano  on  Bogosloff  Island.    Sci- 

ence, Vol.  V,  pp.  66-67,  Jan-  23>  l885' 
Grewingk,  Constantin.    Beitrag  zur  Kenntniss  der  orographischen  und 

geognostischen  Beschaffenheit  der  Nordwest  Kiiste  Amerikas, 

mit  den  anliegenden  Inseln.     St.  Petersburg.     8°,  1850. 
Healy,  Capt.  M.  A.,  U.  S.  Revenue  Marine.     Report  of  the  Cruise 

of  the  Revenue  Marine  Steamer  Corwin  in  the  Arctic  Ocean 

in  the  year  1885,  p.  15,  pis.  1887. 


336  MERRIAM 

Healy,  Report  of  the  Cruise  of  the  Revenue  Marine  Steamer  Corwin 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  1884,  pp.  7,  15,  37-46,  pis.  1889. 

Hydrographic  Office.  The  New  Volcano  of  the  Bering  Sea.  Science, 
IV,  pp.  432-434,  Nov.  17,  1884.  Contains  Stoney's  notes  and 
chart,  contributed  by  the  U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office. 

Kotzebue,  Otto.  Entdeckungs-Reise,  Vol.  II,  pp.  106-107,  I^21  5 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  166,  1821. 

Langsdorff,  G.  H.  von.  Voyage  and  Travels.  London.  Part  II,  pp. 
242-245,  1814. 

Liitke,  F.  Voyage  autour  du  Monde,  &c.  Nautical  Part,  with  Atlas. 
St.  Petersburg,  p.  302,  fig.  18,  1836.  Contains  Tebenkof's 
sketch  of  Bogoslof  and  Ship  Rock  in  1832.  See  p.  296. 

Merrill,  George  P.  Hornblende  Andesites  from  the  New  Bogosloff 
Volcano.  Science,  Vol.  IV,  p.  524,  Dec.  12,  1884.  [Brief 
announcement.] 

On  Hornblende  Andesites  from  the  New  Volcano  on  Bogosloff 

Island  in  Bering  Sea.  Proceedings  U.  S.  National  Museum, 
Vol.  VIII,  pp.  31-33,  April  23,  1885. 

On  Hornblende  Andesites  from  the  New  Volcano  on  Bogoslov 

Island  in  Bering  Sea.  In  Capt.  M.  A.  Healy's  '  Cruise  of  the 
Revenue  Marine  Steamer  Corwin'  for  1884,  pp.  45-46,  1889. 

Stoney,  Lieut.  G.  M.     See  Hydrographic  Office. 

Tanner,  Lieut.  Commander,  Z.  L.,  U.  S.  Navy.  Report  upon  the 
Investigations  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission  Steamer  Alba- 
tross from  July  i,  1889,  to  June  30,  1891.  Report,  Commis- 
sioner of  Fish  and  Fisheries  for  1889  to  1891,  Part  XVII,  pp. 
242-243,  1893. 

Report  upon  the  Investigations  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission 

Steamer  Albatross  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1892,  pp.  6-7. 
Report,  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries  for  year  ending 
June  30,  1892,  Part  XVIII,  1894. 

Report  upon  the  Operations  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission 

Steamer  Albatross  for  the  Year  ending  June  30,  1894.  Report, 
Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries  for  year  ending  June  30, 
1894,  Part  XX,  p.  203,  1896. 

Yemans,  H.  W.,  Ass't  Surgeon  U.  S.  Marine  Hospital  Service.  De- 
scriptions of  Bogoslov  Island  and  the  New  Volcano  in  Bering 
Sea.  In  '  Cruise  of  the  Revenue  Marine  Steamer  Corwin '  in 
the  Arctic  Ocean  in  1884,  pp.  41-43,  pis. 


THE    SALMON    INDUSTRY 


BY    GEORGE    BIRD    GRINNELL 


HE  fisheries  of  Alaska  constitute  one  of  its 
greatest  economic  resources,  but  they  have 
been  little  exploited,  except  so  far  as  the 
salmon  are  concerned.  There  are  half  a 
dozen  species  of  salmon,  not  all  of  equal  value. 
Spending  most  of  their  time  in  the  salt  water,  the  salmon 
in  summer  run  up  the  fresh-water  streams  as  far  as  they 
can,  and  there  deposit  their  eggs.  Many  of  them  die  be- 
fore they  return  to  the  salt  water;  many  others  are  de- 
stroyed by  enemies  of  one  sort  and  another,  and  it  is  com- 
monly believed  by  the  local  fishermen  that  after  a  salmon 
has  deposited  its 
spawn  the  question 
of  its  death  is  one  of 
a  very  short  time 
only. 


The  world's  out- 
put of  canned  sal- 
mon comes  chiefly 
from  our  Northwest 
coast.  In  1897  this 
output  is  said  to  have  been  not  far  from  3,000,000  cases, 
with  forty  eight  one-pound  cans  to  the  case.  Of  this, 
Alaska  produced  about  1,000,000  cases. 

(337) 


SALMON   WHEEL,    COLUMBIA    RIVER. 


338 


GRINNELL 


In  most  salmon  streams  the  fish  appear  to  be  about  the 
same  size  and  age.  All  the  females  are  likely  to  be  very 
similar  in  appearance;  all  the  males  also  resemble  each 
other.  There  are,  however,  exceptions  to  this  rule;  that  is 
to  say,  some  streams  are  entered  by  more  than  one  species. 

The  spawning  ground  sought  by  the  salmon  is  usually 
sandy  or  gravelly  bottom  in  a  pool  or  eddy,  but  sometimes 
beds  are  swept  out  and  spawn  is  deposited  where  the  bot- 
tom is  covered  with  stones,  varying  in  size  from  a  hen's 


SALMON   DRYING. 


egg  to  a  man's  fist.  During  the  winter  the  eggs  of  the 
salmon  hatch  out,  and  in  the  spring  after  the  ice  passes 
out  of  the  lakes  the  young  salmon  move  down  the  streams 
and  can  often  be  seen  at  the  mouths  in  large  numbers. 

It  is  an  astonishing  sight  to  witness  the  ascent  of  a  small 
salmon  stream  by  the  fish,  urged  on  by  the  reproductive 
desire.  They  work  their  way  slowly  up  over  riffles,  where 
there  is  not  nearly  enough  water  to  float  them,  but  they 
seem  to  have  the  power  of  keeping  themselves  right  side 
up,  and  so  long  as  it  does  not  fall  over  on  its  side,  a  fish  six 


DECREASE  OF  THE  SALMON  339 

or  eight  inches  deep  can  wriggle  over  shoals  where  the 
water  is  not  an  inch  deep  nearly  as  fast  as  a  man  can  run. 
On  such  a  stream  one  may  catch  in  his  hands  great  salmon 
weighing  ten  or  twelve  pounds,  or  may  kick  them  out  on 
the  bank  with  his  feet.  And  while  the  appearance  of  a 
man  in  the  shoal  water  will  at  once  alarm  the  fish  and 
send  them  darting  in  all  directions,  up  or  down  the  stream, 
or  even  out  on  the  bank,  yet  they  soon  return,  and  begin 
again  to  work  their  way  slowly  up  through  the  shallow 
water. 

If  one  inquires  of  an  individual  connected  with  the 
salmon  industry  in  Alaska  something  about  their  numbers, 
he  is  at  once  told  of  the  millions  found  there,  and  informed 
that  the  supply  is  inexhaustible.  The  same  language  will 
be  used  that  was  heard  in  past  years  with  regard  to  the 
abundance  of  the  wild  pigeons,  or  of  the  buffalo,  or  of  the 
fur-seals  of  Bering  Sea.  But  if  the  investigator  will  con- 
tinue his  inquiry,  and  ask  for  the  details  of  today,  he  will 
learn  that  it  now  takes  far  longer  to  secure  a  given  number 
of  fish  than  it  used  to,  and  that  the  fishermen  are  obliged 
to  travel  much  farther  from  the  cannery  than  formerly  to 
secure  their  catch.  As  the  reserve  of  the  new  acquaint- 
ance wears  off  and  he  becomes  interested  in  his  subject, 
what  he  says  will  show  very  clearly  that  the  supply  of 
Alaska  salmon  is  diminishing,  and  diminishing  at  a  rapid 
rate. 

The  salmon  in  the  eavly  summer  come  up  from  the 
deeper  waters  toward  the  mouths  of  the  fresh  water 
streams,  and  for  some  weeks  may  be  seen  in  the  bays, 
inlets,  and  fiords  collecting  in  great  numbers,  preparatory 
to  running  up  the  stream.  At  this  time  they  may  be  taken 
in  considerable  numbers  in  such  places  by  trolling  with 
the  hook  and  line,  and  afford  good  sport.  At  morning 
and  evening  they  are  seen  in  numbers  leaping  out  of  the 
water,  sometimes  fifteen  or  twenty  following  one  another, 


34°  GRINNELL 

all  leaving  and  entering  the  water  almost  at  the  same  place, 
as  if  chasing  one  another. 

When  the  fish  have  at  last  congregated  at  the  mouths 
of  the  rivers,  the  work  of  the  canners  begins.  They 
seldom  cast  their  nets  unless  fish  are  actually  seen,  but 
when  the  salmon  are  visible  the  seine,  from  three  to  five 
hundred  fathoms  long,  is  swept  through  the  water,  and 
the  captured  fish  are  loaded  on  to  the  steam  tug,  which 
then  takes  them  to  the  cannery. 

The  fishermen  who  manage  the  small  boats  and  sweep 
the  nets  are  either  Indians  or  Aleuts.  The  crews  of  the 
steam  tugs  are  usually  white  men,  while  the  workmen  on 
the  wharf  and  in  the  cannery  proper  are  all  Chinamen,  ex- 
cept for  an  occasional  foreman  or  skilled  mechanic. 

After  the  loaded  tug  is  tied  up  to  the  wharf,  two  or  three 
men  equipped  with  single-tined  forks  toss  the  fish  from 
the  deck  to  the  wharf  above,  where  they  are  received  by 
other  men  similarly  equipped,  who  pass  them  along  to  the 
gang  who  clean  the  fish  at  a  long  table.  The  man  at  the 
end  of  the  table  seizes  a  fish  and  cuts  off  its  head  and 
slides  it  along  to  the  next  man,  who  by  two  rapid  cuts 
along  the  back  takes  out  the  backbone  and  loosens  the 
entrails.  It  is  then  pushed  on  to  the  next  man,  by  whom 
these  loose  pieces  and  whatever  blood  there  may  be  in  the 
visceral  cavity  are  scraped  away,  the  tail  is  cut  off  and  the 
fish  is  thrown  into  a  tank  of  water.  From  this  it  is  lifted 
and  placed  with  many  others  in  a  large  tray,  which  is 
wheeled  into  one  end  of  the  cannery  building.  All  these 
operations  have  taken  place  on  the  wharf,  without  the 
cannery  and  over  the  water,  so  that  usually  all  the  waste 
products  fall  down  into  the  water  below,  where  a  part 
is  devoured  by  the  trout,  which  are  constantly  to  be  seen 
swimming  about,  a  part  by  the  gulls  and  other  birds  which 
congregate  in  great  flocks  near  at  hand,  and  the  remainder 
is  swept  back  and  forth  by  the  tide,  much  being  carried 


CANNING    SALMON  341 

away,  but  enough  left  on  the  beach  to  give  the  place  a 
decided  odor  of  its  own. 

The  tray  of  cleaned  fish  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  long 
machine,  where  a  carrier  belt,  divided  into  compartments 
about  1 8  inches  square,  by  wooden  partitions  standing  at 
right  angles  to  it,  is  constantly  ascending  at  an  angle  of 
about  40°  to  the  top  of  the  machine,  which  is  ten  or  twelve 
feet  above  the  floor.  This  belt  is  formed  of  short  boards 
linked  together.  The  board  cross  partitions  are  not  con- 
tinuous, but  have  two  or  three  divisions  wide  enough  to 
permit  heavy  knives  to  pass  down  through  them.  Above 
the  belt,  not  far  from  the  top,  is  a  cam  in  which  are  set  a 
number  of  large  knives,  and  this  cam,  revolving  at  the 
same  rate  with  the  movement  of  the  belt,  sends  down  a 
set  of  knives  through  each  compartment  as  it  moves  along. 

As  the  belt  moves  on,  a  single  fish  is  placed  in  each 
compartment,  is  carried  upward,  is  cut  by  the  revolving 
knives  into  one-pound  pieces,  and  when  the  compartment 
reaches  the  point  where  the  belt  turns  to  pass  downward 
again,  the  fragments  of  the  fish  are  thrown  out  on  a  table. 
All  this  machinery  works  automatically. 

From  the  elevated  table  where  the  pieces  of  the  fish  lie, 
another  carrier  belt  runs  down  toward  another  table. 
This  belt  is  just  wide  enough  to  hold  the  one-pound  frag- 
ments of  fish,  each  of  which  is  to  fill  a  can.  A  man  stand- 
ing by  the  upper  table  keeps  placing  the  pieces  of  fish 
close  to  each  other  on  the  belt,  and  they  are  carried  down- 
ward to  a  point  where  there  is  a  great  rammer  just  large 
enough  to  fit  into  a  one-pound  can.  This  rammer  works 
constantly  back  and  forth  across  the  belt  carrying  the  fish. 
Opposite  the  rammer  is  a  horizontal  belt  carrying  a  row 
of  open  empty  cans,  the  mouths  of  which  lie  toward  the 
inclined  belt  which  carries  the  fish.  The  tin  cans  move 
at  such  a  rate  that  the  mouth  of  one  is  opposite  the  ram- 
mer at  each  forward  motion  that  it  makes,  and  at  each 


342  GRINNELL 

forward  motion  a  one-pound  fragment  of  salmon  is  jammed 
into  an  empty  can,  the  can  is  carried  on,  and  another 
empty  can  follows  it,  into  which  another  piece  of  fish  is 
thrust.  This  goes  on  without  interruption,  minute  after 
minute  and  hour  after  hour,  so  long  as  the  supply  of  fish 
holds  out. 

The  belt  carrying  the  filled  cans  now  throws  them  out 
on  a  wide  flat  table  surrounded  by  men,  one  of  whom  sets 
them  on  end  as  he  receives  them  from  the  machine. 
Those  that  are  completely  full  are  whirled  across  the  table 
to  a  man  who  with  a  cloth  wipes  the  grease  or  moisture 
or  salmon  flesh  from  about  the  open  end  of  the  can,  in 
order  that  when  the  cover  is  soldered  on,  the  solder  may 
take  proper  hold  of  the  tin.  Those  not  quite  full  are 
thrown  to  another  man,  at  whose  right  hand  is  a  pile  of 
bits  of  salmon  flesh.  He  fills  the  can  and  pushes  it  along 
to  the  wiper.  The  latter,  as  soon  as  he  has  finished  with 
the  can,  slides  it  across  to  another  who  places  a  fragment 
of  tin  on  the  contents  in  such  a  position  that  it  will  be 
under  the  middle  of  the  cover,  which  is  now  put  on  by 
another  man,  standing  near  the  end  of  the  table.  The  filled 
and  covered  cans  are  constantly  gathered  up  and  placed  in 
trays  by  two  men,  who  carry  them  across  a  short  passage 
and  set  them  down  near  a  man  who  is  attending  to  the 
soldering  machine.  They  are  laid  side  by  side  on  a  belt 
which  runs  down  to  a  metal  trough  just  as  wide  as  a  can 
is  high  and  deeper  at  one  side  than  at  the  other,  the  lower 
side  being  full  of  molten  solder.  The  trough  and  solder 
are  kept  hot  by  a  blast  beneath  them.  The  cans  are 
moved  forward  by  means  of  a  heavy  chain  hanging  over 
them.  The  belt  carries  the  cans  down  to  this  trough. 
The  edge  of  the  cover  where  it  meets  the  can  rolls  along 
for  ten  or  twelve  feet  through  this  molten  solder,  then  the 
can  passes  on  to  another  belt,  is  tipped  so  that  it  stands  on 
its  bottom  and  rides  along  on  the  belt  to  a  point  where 


CANNING    SALMON  343 

men  stand  with  trays  ready  to  gather  up  the  cans  and  carry 
them  over  to  the  testers,  whose  business  it  is  to  determine 
whether  the  cans  are  absolutely  air  tight  or  not.  For  this 
purpose  a  large  number  of  cans  are  set  in  a  strap-iron 
crate,  which  is  lowered  into  a  tank  of  water.  If  bubbles 
rise  from  any  can,  it  evidently  is  not  tight,  and  is  removed 
and  another  one  put  in  its  place.  In  this  way  five,  ten,  or 
twenty  cans  may  be  taken  from  the  crate,  which  is  then 
lifted  out  and  carried  over  to  the  great  boilers,  into  which 
crates  full  of  cans  are  rolled  and  where  they  are  cooked 
by  steam  for  an  hour. 

The  defective  cans  are  passed  over  to  the  solderers  and 
by  them  carefully  examined;  the  holes  are  soldered  up  by 
hand  and  the  cans  then  go  back  to  the  testers. 

After  the  cooking  process  the  cans  are  gone  over  again 
to  see  whether  any  are  defective,  and  then  are  stacked  up 
in  great  piles  on  the  floor.  From  these  piles  they  are 
taken  to  racks,  ranged  over  tanks  of  shellac,  and  when  one 
of  these  racks  is  full,  by  a  simple  device  its  contents  are 
dipped  into  the  tank  beneath,  lifted  out,  and  left  there  to 
drain.  The  shellac  soon  dries;  then  the  cans  are  removed 
from  the  rack  and  again  stacked  up  on  the  floor,  where 
the  final  operation  of  putting  on  the  labels  is  performed. 
When  this  has  been  done  they  are  ready  for  casing,  forty 
eight  one-pound  cans  going  into  a  case. 

The  salmon  of  Alaska,  numerous  as  they  have  been  and 
in  some  places  still  are,  are  being  destroyed  at  so  whole- 
sale a  rate  that  before  long  the  canning  industry  must 
cease  to  be  profitable,  and  the  capital  put  into  the  can- 
neries must  cease  to  yield  any  return. 

This  destruction  of  salmon  comes  about  through  the 
competition  between  the  various  canneries.  Their  greed 
is  so  great  that  each  strives  to  catch  all  the  fish  there  are, 
and  all  at  one  time,  in  order  that  its  rivals  may  secure  as 
few  as  possible.  With  their  steam  tugs,  their  crews  of 


344 


GRINNELL 


white  men  and  Aleuts,  and  their  immense  seines  they  first 
sweep  the  waters  near  the  canneries,  and  then,  when  these 
have  been  cleared  out,  go  further  and  further  away,  until 
at  present  many  canneries,  having  exhausted  the  nearby 
waters,  are  obliged  to  send  their  tugs  60  or  70  or  even  100 
miles  to  find  fish  for  the  pack.  The  fish  are  caught  with 
seines,  some  of  which  are  300  fathoms  long,  some  450 
fathoms,  and  I  was  told  of  one  750  fathoms  long  and  18  to 
20  feet  deep.  These  seines  are  run  out  near  the  mouths 


ALEUTS  DRYING   SALMON  AT  UNALASKA. 

of  the  rivers  where  the  fish  are  schooling  preparatory  to 
their  ascent,  and  of  course  everything  within  the  compass 
of  the  net  is  caught.  Not  only  are  salmon  taken  by  the 
steamer  load,  but  in  addition  millions  of  other  good  fish 
are  captured,  killed,  and  thrown  away.  At  times  also  it 
happens  that  far  greater  numbers  of  salmon  are  caught 
than  can  be  used  before  they  spoil.  A  friend  told  me  of 
the  throwing  away  of  60,000  salmon  at  one  time  near  a 
cannery  in  Prince  William  Sound  in  the  summer  of  1900, 


SELFISHNESS    OF    SALMON    CANNERS  345 

and  again  of  the  similar  throwing  away  of  10,000  fish. 
At  these  particular  times  the  salmon  run  happened  to  be 
very  heavy,  and  more  were  caught  than  could  be  con- 
sumed by  the  cannery.  So  something  like  700,000  pounds 
of  valuable  fish  was  wasted. 

One  of  the  best  known  salmon  districts  of  Alaska  may 
be  chosen  as  an  example  of  what  this  wasteful  method 
will  do  for  any  river.  I  was  told  recently  by  a  person 
very  familiar  with  the  canning  industry  and  with  Alaska 
that  the  catch  of  salmon  in  the  Kadiak  and  Chignik  dis- 
tricts—  which  put  up  nearly  44  percent  of  all  the  Alaska 
canned  salmon  —  for  1896  was  nearly  360^000  cases;  for 
1897  it  was  about  300,000  cases;  for  1898,  90,000  cases, 
and  that  up  to  midsummer  in  1899  the  fishing  had  been 
practically  a  failure.  And  what  is  going  on  in  the  Kadiak 
district  is  going  on  in  other  districts.  Competition  is  so 
very  sharp  between  the  great  canning  companies,  as  well 
as  between  the  smaller  individual  concerns  which  run 
canneries,  that  each  manager  is  eagerly  desirous  to  put  up 
more  fish  than  his  neighbor.  All  these  people  recognize 
very  well  that  they  are  destroying  the  fishing;  and  that 
before  very  long  a  time  must  come  when  there  will  be  no 
more  salmon  to  be  canned  at  a  profit.  But  this  very 
knowledge  makes  them  more  and  more  eager  to  capture 
the  fish  and  to  capture  all  the  fish.  This  bitter  competi- 
tion sometimes  leads  to  actual  fighting — on  the  water  as 
well  as  in  the  courts.  A  year  or  two  since,  one  company 
which  was  trying  to  stop  another  from  fishing  on  ground 
which  it  claimed  as  its  own,  sent  out  its  boats  with  im- 
mense seines,  and  dropping  them  about  the  steam  launches 
of  its  rival  tried  to  haul  them  to  the  shore.  This  action 
led  to  long  litigation,  which  resulted  in  a  verdict  for  the 
company  attacked. 

Thus  the  canners  work  in  a  most  wasteful  and  thought- 
lessly selfish  way,  grasping  for  everything  that  is  within 


346 


GRINNELL 


their  reach  and  thinking  nothing  of  the  future.  Their 
motto  seems  to  be,  "  If  I  do  not  take  all  I  can  get  some- 
body else  will  get  something." 

Congress  has  passed  laws  governing  the  taking  of  sal- 
mon in  Alaska,  but  they  are  ineffective  and  there  is 
scarcely  a  pretense  of  enforcing  them.  It  is  true  that 
each  year  inspectors  are  brought  up  on  the  revenue  cutter 
to  see  that  the  law  is  obeyed,  and  of  course  these  in- 


SALMON   BARRICADE. 


specters  see  very  clearly  that  it  is  violated  in  every  direc- 
tion. Where  the  violations  are  so  flagrant  that  they  force 
themselves  on  the  inspectors'  notice  the  canners  are  told 
that  they  are  doing  wrong,  and  that  the  violations  of  the 
law  must  cease.  The  canners  reply  to  them,  "  Yes,  we 
know  you  are  quite  right ;  it  is  wrong.  We  do  not  wish 
to  do  as  we  are  doing,  but  so  long  as  others  act  in  this 
way  we  must  continue  to  do  so  for  our  own  protection. 
Speak  to  our  rivals  about  this.  We  will  stop  if  they  will." 


VIOLATING    THE    LAW  347 

The  rival  companies,  when  spoken  to,  make  the  same 
reply;  so  accusations  are  bandied  back  and  forth. 
Nothing  is  done  and  the  bad  work  goes  on. 

Nor  are  the  concerns  satisfied  with  capturing  the  vast 
quantities  of  fish  as  they  are  schooling  in  the  salt  water 
preparatory  to  running  up  the  streams  to  their  spawning 
ground.  To  do  this  systematically  would  be  to  catch  most 
of  the  fish,  but  it  would  not  catch  them  all  —  it  would  not 
make  a  clean  sweep.  So,  on  many  of  the  streams  the 
companies  build  dams  or  barricades,  designed  to  prevent 
any  fish  from  ascending.  Drawn  by  instinct  to  the  mouths 
of  the  rivers,  the  fish  crowd  to  them  trying  to  ascend, 
pushing  forward,  going  only  in  one  direction,  and  never 
becoming  discouraged  so  long  as  life  remains.  None 
ever  turn  back,  and  so,  in  the  course  of  the  summer  the 
whole  number  which  in  the  natural  course  of  things  would 
ascend  a  river  finally  collect  at  its  mouth.  If  the  nets  are 
systematically  drawn,  all  these  fish  are  caught;  not  one 
escapes,  and  the  river  is  absolutely  despoiled  of  breeding 
fish  for  that  year.  Not  one  ascends,  and  so  no  eggs  are 
deposited  and  no  fry  are  hatched  the  next  spring. 

Of  course  this  absolute  obstruction  of  the  streams  is 
practicable  only  on  the  smaller  rivers.  But  it  is  carried 
on  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  all  through  the  Territory 
wherever  it  can  be  done,  and  yet  "  the  erection  of  dams, 
barricades,  fish  wheels,  fences  or  any  such  fixed  or  station- 
ary obstructions  in  any  part  of  the  rivers  or  streams  of 
Alaska  ...  is  declared  to  be  unlawful,"  and  is 
punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  $1,000  or  imprison- 
ment at  hard  labor  for  a  term  of  90  days,  or  by  both  such 
fine  and  imprisonment,  and  by  a  further  fine  of  $250  per 
day  for  each  day  that  such  obstruction  is  maintained. 

There  are  certain  rivers  too  large  to  be  barricaded,  and 
up  these  some  fish  run,  notwithstanding  the  continual  net- 
ting at  their  mouths.  Such  rivers  often  head  in  consider- 


348  GRINNELL 

able  lakes,  where  the  fish  spawn.  It  is  the  common  prac- 
tice of  many  of  the  canners  to  fish  with  nets  in  these  lakes, 
and  with  an  utter  disregard  for  consequences  to  catch  the 
fish  while  occupied  in  depositing  their  eggs. 

As  the  natives  of  Alaska,  many  of  them  Aleuts,  subsist 
largely  on  salmon,  the  regulations  of  the  Treasury  De- 
partment permit  them  to  fish  for  food,  and  they  are  not 
subject  to  the  general  law  which  provides  "  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  salmon  fisheries  of  Alaska."  Advantage  is 
taken  of  this  liberty  still  further  to  destroy  the  fish.  The 
natives  catch  all  the  salmon  they  wish  and  sell  them  to 
the  canners,  and  this  goes  on  indefinitely  wherever  the 
prohibition  against  fishing  is  in  any  degree  regarded.  Of 
course  the  natives,  ignorant  of  the  law,  and,  like  the 
white  man,  eager  for  present  gain,  are  glad  to  catch  the 
fish  and  to  sell  them. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  long  before  the  white  man 
had  come  to  Alaska,  the  fisheries  on  most  of  the  streams 
resorted  to  by  the  salmon  already  had  owners.  For  hun- 
dreds of  years  the  Indians  and  the  Aleuts  had  held  these 
fisheries,  not  in  the  general  way  in  which  an  Indian  tribe 
claimed  to  possess  a  certain  territory,  but  with  an  actual 
ownership  which  was  acknowledged  by  all  and  was  never 
encroached  on.  Their  rights  to  the  fisheries  were  as  real 
as  to  the  arms  that  they  bore  or  the  boats  in  which  they 
traveled.  For  centuries  certain  families  or  certain  clans 
had  held  proprietary  rights  in  particular  streams,  and  they 
alone  could  take  fish  from  them.  No  Indian  would  fish 
in  a  stream  not  his  own.  He  respected  the  rights  of 
others,  just  as  he  expected  others  to  respect  his  own. 
These  ancient  rights  have  now  been  taken  from  the  na- 
tives by  force,  but  they  are  still  anxious  to  get  what  they 
can  from  the  fishing. 

On  some  streams  it  is  easier  to  take  the  fish  in  traps 
than  it  is  to  stop  them  by  means  of  barricades,  and  then 


SALMON    ON    AFOGNAK    ISLAND 


349 


net  them  from  the  water  below  the  barrier.  In  such  places 
traps  are  built  with  wings  and  low  dams  up  which  the  fish 
can  pass  into  a  pool  or  lake,  which  at  its  head  is  dammed 
by  an  impassable  barrier.  When  the  pool  is  full,  or  nearly 
so,  it  is  swept  clean  by  the  net  and  left  empty  to  be  filled 
again.  Thus  all  the  breeding  fish  of  a  season  may  be  and 
often  are  caught. 

I  was  told  that  one  of  the  great  corporations  established 
in  Alaska  had    received   permission  to  establish  a  fish 


CAMP   OF   NATIVE   SALMON  FISHERMEN,    KADIAK   ISLAND. 

hatchery,  and  that  the  employees  of  this  company  during 
the  day  catch  fish  ostensibly  to  strip  for  the  hatchery  and 
at  night  take  them  back  to  the  cannery  and  can  them. 

It  is  well  remembered  that  the  island  of  Afognak,  lying 
just  east  of  Kadiak  Island,  and  in  one  of  the  richest  sal- 
mon regions  of  Alaska,  was  set  aside  some  years  since  by 
Presidential  proclamation  as  a  forest  reserve.  Formerly 
there  was  a  cannery  on  this  island,  but  it  has  been  dis- 


35°  GRINNELL 

continued  and  the  machinery  moved  away.  This,  how- 
ever, does  not  make  much  difference  in  the  destruction  of 
the  salmon.  The  streams  of  Afognak  Island  are  con- 
stantly fished  by  means  of  nets  and  barricades,  and  this 
reservation,  like  some  of  those  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States,  is  a  prey  to  whoever  may  be  the  first  to 
despoil  it. 

Within  a  few  years  there  has  sprung  up  in  Alaska  a 
new  and  particularly  wasteful  method  of  using  salmon. 
This  is  the  salting  of  the  bellies.  It  is  perhaps  not  gen- 
erally known  that  the  most  delicate  part  of  the  salmon  is 
the  belly.  In  old  times  certain  tribes  of  Indians  —  where 
the  fish  were  sufficiently  abundant  —  habitually  cut  out 
and  dried  for  their  winter  food  the  bellies  alone,  throwing 
away  the  remainder  of  the  fish.  In  various  parts  of  Alaska 
the  same  practice  is  carried  on  to-day.  Only  the  bellies 
of  prime  salmon  are  preserved,  salted,  and  packed  in  bar- 
rels for  shipment,  the  whole  fish,  except  the  belly,  being 
thrown  away.  In  other  words  only  from  10  percent  to 
20  percent  in  weight  of  each  fish  is  used,  the  remainder 
being  wasted. 

Very  little  capital  is  required  to  establish  a  saltery.  All 
that  is  needed  is  a  rough  shelter  from  the  weather,  salt, 
barrels,  and  labor.  On  the  other  hand  to  establish  a  can- 
nery requires  some  money,  for  the  buildings  must  be  of  a 
permanent  character,  and  more  or  less  elaborate  machinery 
is  required.  A  saltery  may  be  established  almost  any- 
where, and  may  readily  be  moved  from  one  place  to  an- 
other. The  salted  bellies  are  recognized  in  the  market 
as  choice  food  and  bring  good  prices.  Thus  almost  any- 
one may  establish  a  saltery  and  the  business  offers  espe- 
cial attractions  to  men  of  small  means. 

Salting  is  practiced  at  various  points  in  Alaska,  one  of 
the  best  known  salteries  being  situated  near  Tyonek  on 
Cook  Inlet.  At  this  particular  place  king  salmon  —  known 


THE    LAW    IN    THE    CASE  351 

in  British  Columbia  and  the  United  States  as  '  chinook ' 
salmon  —  are  used.  These  are  the  largest  and  choicest 
of  the  Pacific  coast  salmon,  but  they  are  destroyed  as  un- 
thinkingly as  any  of  the  others.  At  other  salteries  the 
varieties  known  as  humpback  and  cohoe  also  furnish 
bellies  for  salting. 

This  practice  may  fairly  be  compared  with  the  old  time 
method  of  killing  buffalo  for  their  tongues  alone,  and  the 
more  recent  one  of  killing  elk  and  deer  for  their  hides  or 
heads  or  hams.  It  should  be  stopped;  but  even  if  for- 
bidden by  law  there  is  no  hope  that  in  the  present  condi- 
tion of  governmental  affairs  in  Alaska  the  law  would  be 
other  than  a  dead  letter.  When  —  if  ever — matters  in 
Alaska  shall  have  become  so  settled  that  the  taking  of 
salmon  shall  be  under  governmental  supervision  the  salt- 
ing of  salmon  bellies,  like  many  other  abuses  existing 
there,  will  be  put  an  end  to. 

By  the  law  passed  June  9,  1896,  now  in  force,  entitled 
"  An  act  to  amend  an  act  entitled  '  An  act  to  provide  for 
the  protection  of  salmon  fisheries  of  Alaska,'  "  it  is  specifi- 
cally provided: 

1.  That  streams  shall  not  be  dammed  or  barricaded  nor 
traps  used  on  them  to  prevent  or  impede  the  ascent  of  the 
salmon  to  their  spawning  grounds,  and  that  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  shall  establish  and  enforce  such  regula- 
tions as  may  be  necessary  to  insure  compliance  with  the 
provisions  of  the  law  relating  to  salmon  fisheries  of  Alaska. 

2.  That  salmon  shall  not  be  taken  except  with  rod  or 
spear  above  the  tide  water  of  any  stream  less  than  500 
feet  in  width  except  for  purposes  of  propagation;  that  nets 
and  traps  may  not  be  laid  or  set  for  a  distance  of  more 
than  one-third  the  width  of  such  rivers  nor  within  100 
yards  of  any  other  net  or  seine  in  said  rivers ;  that  no  fish 
may  be  killed,  except  in  Cook  Inlet  and  Prince  William 
Sound,  between  midnight  on  Friday  and  6  o'clock  in  the 


352  GRINNELL 

morning  of  the  Sunday  following;  that  no  salmon  may  be 
caught  in  any  manner  or  by  any  appliance,  except  by  rod 
or  spear,  in  any  stream  less  than  300  feet  wide  between  6 
o'clock  in  the  evening  and  6  o'clock  in  the  morning  on 
each  day  of  the  week. 

3.  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  set  aside 
certain  streams  in  which  no  fishing  may  be  permitted,  and 
that  he  may  establish  close  seasons  to  limit  the  duration 
of  the  fishing  season,  or  may  prohibit  the  fishing  entirely 
for  one  year  or  more. 

4.  The  appointment  is  authorized  of  three  inspectors  of 
fisheries  and  their  salaries  are  named. 

5.  Penalties  for  violation  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  are 
announced. 

As  has  been  said,  the  law  in  force  is  entirely  inadequate, 
but  it  is  easier  to  see  where  it  fails  to  protect  than  it  is  to 
suggest  amendments  which  shall  make  it  efficient.  Per- 
sons in  Alaska  interested  in  canneries  have  expressed  the 
opinion  that  a  tax  should  be  laid  on  the  output  of  each 
cannery,  and  that  this  tax  should  be  used  to  support  hatch- 
eries by  which  the  supply  of  salmon  in  the  streams  might 
constantly  be  renewed.  It  is  obvious  that  Congress,  which 
enacts  the  laws,  can  know  but  little,  or  nothing,  about  the 
actual  necessities  of  the  case.  The  present  law,  which 
provides  for  the  appointment  of  three  inspectors  to  look 
after  a  territory  one-fifth  as  large  as  the  whole  United 
States,  where  there  are  no  means  of  transportation  and 
where  every  stream  that  is  six  inches  deep  is  a  salmon 
stream,  is  entirely  inadequate,  and  in  fact  authorizes  the 
throwing  away  of  the  small  amount  of  money  that  is  paid 
to  each  of  these  men.  Many  of  the  provisions  of  the 
present  law  are  excellent  so  far  as  they  go,  and  the  chief 
weakness  lies  in  the  fact  that  no  means  are  provided  for 
enforcing  the  statute. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  expense  of  enforcing  the  law  pro- 


ASPECTS    OF    THE    FISHERY 

tecting  salmon  in  Alaska  should  be  borne  by  those  who 
are  engaged  in  the  business  of  catching  and  selling  these 
salmon.  The  canners  should  be  taxed  presumably  on  the 
output  of  their  factories,  and  the  revenue  received  from 
this  source  should  be  used  from  year  to  year  for  the  pur- 
pose of  restocking  the  streams  and  protecting  them.  It 
might  be  practicable  also  to  lease  certain  streams  to  cer- 


SALMON  DRYING  BY  ALEUTS. 


tain  companies  on  reasonable  terms,  not  permitting  them 
to  fish  except  on  the  streams  that  they  have  leased. 

What  has  already  been  written  concerns  the  summer 
of  1898  and  previous  seasons.  Since  then,  there  appears 
to  have  been  no  material  change  in  the  conditions,  except 
that  the  summer  of  1900  was  marked  by  an  unusually 
good  run  of  salmon  in  certain  rivers,  and  that  certain 
catches  were  large. 

The  report  of  the  Special  Agent  of  the  treasury  for  1900, 
which  become  accessible  while  these  pages  were  passing 
through  the  press  (April  1901),  shows  that  violations  of  the 
Jaw  by  the  methods  already  described  continue,  and  while 


354  GRINNELL 

this  agent  takes  a  most  cheerful  view  of  the  prospects  of  the 
fisheries  and  declares  that  many  new  canneries  are  being 
established — a  condition  which  is  likely  always  to  follow 
a  year  in  which  there  has  been  a  good  run  —  yet  an  inspec- 
tion of  his  report  indicates  steady  and  continuous  diminu- 
tion in  the  numbers  of  the  fish  taken,  and  strongly  empha- 
sizes the  importance  of  measures  to  increase  the  supply 
and  protect  the  breeding  fish.  In  describing  the  process 
of  salmon  taking  and  canning  he  says :  "  It  is  reported 
that  with  the  help  of  steam  power  and  the  use  of  the  lar- 
gest size  of  seine  as  many  as  75,000  salmon  have  been 
taken  at  a  single  haul.  But  that  never  happens  nowadays, 
when  a  catch  of  5,000  is  accounted  extremely  good  and 
very  often  a  few  hundred  only  are  secured."  These  few 
words  tell  the  whole  story. 

Some  slightly  increased  interest  appears  to  be  felt  in 
the  direction  of  artificial  propagation.  The  report  im- 
plies that  four  practical  hatcheries  are  in  operation  in 
Alaska,  and  says  that  their  output  of  salmon  fry  will  not 
exceed  14,000,000 —  a  number  about  equal  to  two-thirds  of 
the  annual  catch.  As  only  about  one  percent  of  these  fry 
are  supposed  to  mature,  it  is  obvious  that  as  yet  the  efforts 
to  supply  the  annual  loss  caused  by  commercial  fishing  are 
entirely  insignificant. 

Notwithstanding  the  wholesale  destruction  which  is 
thus  going  on,  the  salmon  of  Alaska  are  not  in  danger  of 
actual  extermination.  Long  before  anything  of  this  kind 
had  taken  place  the  canneries  and  indeed  commercial 
fishing  of  every  description  would  have  been  abandoned 
as  unprofitable,  and  the  streams  —  even  those  that  had 
been  most  ruthlessly  fished  —  would  slowly  reestablish 
themselves.  But  the  selfish  and  shortsighted  policy  of 
taking  everything  in  sight  cannot  fail  to  render  unprofit- 
able in  a  very  short  time  the  whole  Alaska  canning  in- 
dustry, and  to  make  it  necessary  to  abandon  the  costly 


VALUE    OF    THE    FISHERY  355 

plants  that  have  been  established  at  so  many  points. 
Even  if  the  government  is  too  indifferent  to  interfere  to 
regulate  the  fishing,  it  would  seem  that  as  a  mere  matter 
of  business  policy  the  corporations  and  individuals  inter- 
ested in  the  industry  would  get  together  and  devise  plans 
for  their  own  protection;  but  small  jealousies  and  the  fear 
of  being  overreached  by  competitors  have  hitherto  pre- 
vented this. 

The  question  of  the  protection  of  these  fisheries  is  not 
one  of  sentiment  in  any  degree.  It  is  a  question  as  to 
whether  the  material  resources  of  Alaska  are  worth  pro- 
tecting. Beginning  twenty  years  ago  in  a  very  small  way 
Alaska  has  produced  up  to  this  time  about  7,500,000  cases 
of  salmon  in  addition  to  large  quantities  that  have  been 
salted  —  in  1897  15,500  barrels.  The  output  of  the  sal- 
mon canneries  according  to  the  official  report  of  the  U.  S. 
Treasury  Department  was  in  1899  valued  at  $3,850,346; 
in  1900  $6,219,887.  Certainly  such  a  resource  is  worth 
saving  and  making  perpetual. 


FOX  FARMING  IN  ALASKA 

BY  M.   L.    WASHBURN 


OR  many  years  the  world's  supply  of  fine  furs 
has  been  steadily  decreasing.  The  beautiful 
sea  otter,  from  the  greed  of  the  white  hunter 
with  his  far-reaching  firearms  and  his  still 
more  deadly  net,  set  in  the  rocky  passes 
through  which  the  otter  swims  from  one  feeding  ground 
to  another,  is  practically  extinct.  The  vast  herds  of  fur- 
seals,  by  reason  of  the  destructive  effects  of  killing  at  sea, 
have  so  decreased  that  only  small  remnants  now  frequent 
the  rookeries  of  the  Commander  and  Pribilof  Islands.  On 
land  the  onward  march  of  civilization  just  as  surely  pro- 
claims the  early  commercial  extinction  of  the  silver  fox, 
the  blue  fox,  the  American  sable,  and  many  less  valuable 
fur-bearing  animals.  Even  today  so  scarce  have  these 
animals  become  that  we  find  comparatively  few  of  their 
pelts  offered  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  Their  place  is 
largely  taken  by  inferior  skins,  colored  to  imitate  the  fash- 
ionable furs  of  the  season,  but  which  change  their  tint 
with  use  until  they  finally  return  to  the  original  hue  of  the 
creature  from  which  they  were  taken  —  in  most  instances 
the  humble  rabbit. 

Something  like  fifteen  years  ago  a  few  men  in  western 
Alaska,  realizing  that  fur-bearing  animals  were  doomed, 

(357) 


WASHBURN 


decided  to  try  the  experiment  of  propagating  some  of  the 
more  valuable  kinds.  Having  resided  on  the  Seal  or 
Pribilof  Islands  and  observed  that  the  blue  fox  became 
somewhat  tame,  they  resolved  to  try  its  domestication  by 
placing  a  small  number  on  protected  islands  and  caring 
for  them  as  the  stockman  cares  for  his  herd  of  cattle  or 
sheep.  About  twenty  foxes  were  taken  from  St.  Paul  Is- 
land of  the  Pribilof  group,  and  placed  on  North  Semidi, 
one  of  the  hundreds  of  unoccupied  islands  of  Alaska,  and 
thus  the  experiment  began.  The  industry  being  new 
nothing  was  known  of  the  habits  of  the  animal,  the  care 

necessary  for  its 
successful  propa- 
gation, or  the  kind 
of  food  which  was 
likely  to  prove 
commercially 
practicable  —  for 
it  must  be  nutri- 
tious, inexpensive, 
and  palatable. 

From  North 
Semidi,  the  origi- 
nal i  fox  ranch,'  if 
one  may  employ 
such  a  term,  foxes 
were  taken  to  other  islands  along  the  Alaska  coast  and  the 
experiments  continued.  The  results  though  sometimes 
discouraging  and  not  always  financially  successful,  have 
shown  on  the  whole  that  the  animal  could  be  raised  and 
its  valuable  pelt  obtained  with  as  much  regularity  as  in  the 
case  of  the  humbler  domestic  animals.  About  thirty 
islands  are  now  stocked  with  blue  foxes  —  all  the  out- 
growth of  the  small  stock  of  twenty  foxes  taken  from 
St.  Paul  Island  fifteen  years  ago. 


BLUE  FOXES  ON  FOX  FARM. 


FOX    FARMING  359 

Long  Island,  a  few  miles  east  of  Kadiak,  is  perhaps  the 
ideal  blue  fox  ranch  and  may  serve  as  a  type  for  all.  It  is 
a  small  island  covered  with  grassy  fields  and  stretches  of 
spruce  forest.  Here,  near  the  beach  and  nestling  down 
in  the  edge  of  the  woods,  surrounded  by  trees,  flowers, 
and  luxuriant  grasses,  is  the  keeper's  house  and  other 
buildings  necessary  for  storing  the  winter's  stock  of  food 
and  handling  the  foxes  during  the  trapping  season.  This 
station  has  been  in  operation  for  about  five  years  and  has 
now  from  800  to  1,000  foxes.  They  are  taken  care  of  by 
a  head  keeper  and  two  assistants.  The  food  consists  of 
fish  and  corn  meal  cooked  together  and  fed  to  the  foxes 
once  a  day  throughout  the  year.  They  soon  come  to 
know  the  feeding  time  and,  gathering  round  an  hour  be- 
fore the  food  is  ready,  patiently  wait  for  their  daily  allow- 
ance (6  or  8  ounces  of  meal  and  fish).  They  then  scatter 
about  the  island  until  the  time  for  the  next  day's  dinner. 
Fish  of  any  kind  is  used,  either  put  up  dry  or  preserved 
in  seal  oil  or  whale  oil,  the  latter  being  especially  attrac- 
tive to  Sir  Reynard. 

The  foxes  soon  learn  to  recognize  their  keepers  and 
show  little  fear  of  them,  but,  as  a  rule,  are  shy  of  stran- 
gers. The  young  are  born  early  in  May  and  attain  their 
growth  in  about  nine  months.  Only  one  litter  is  born  each 
year,  generally  numbering  from  5  to  8,  though  as  many  as 
1 1  have  been  raised  by  one  mother;  this  however  is  unusual 
and  the  estimates  of  increase  for  killing  purposes  are  based 
on  the  probability  that  an  average  of  4  will  reach  maturity. 
During  the  breeding  season  special  care  is  taken  to  scatter 
the  food  over  the  island  as  the  mother  does  not  like  to 
leave  her  young  for  any  length  of  time,  but  after  they 
begin  to  run  about  she  soon  teaches  them  to  follow  her  to 
the  general  feeding  grounds. 

The  killing  season  is  from  about  November  zoth  to 
January  loth,  the  fur  being  then  in  its  finest  state.  The 


360  WASHBURN 

foxes  are  taken  in  box  traps  and  the  best  of  each  sex  are 
saved  for  breeders,  care  being  taken  to  mark  them  by  clip- 
ping the  hair  on  the  end  of  the  tail  as  they  are  released 
from  the  traps.  Daily  records  are  kept  of  the  number  of 
males  and  females  released  and  the  number  of  males  and 
females  killed  —  the  reasons  for  killing  the  latter  being 
carefully  stated. 

The  Semidi  Propagating  Company,  besides  stocking 
from  North  Semidi,  Long  Island,  and  Chirikof  for  itself, 
has  sold  enough  live  foxes  to  stock  the  islands  of  Pearl, 
Little  Naked,  Goose,  Green,  Demidof,  Deranof,  and 


FOX   FARM,   LONG   ISLAND,  NEAR   KADIAK. 

Ugak,  from  which  in  turn  several  other  islands  in  eastern 
Alaska  have  been  supplied,  while  in  western  Alaska  four 
of  the  Shumagin  islands  have  been  stocked  from  Attu, 
where  the  blue  fox  in  the  wild  state  is  still  found  in  limited 
numbers.1 

All  of  the  islands  kept  by  the  Semidi  Propagating  Com- 
pany, and  many  of  the  others  in  Alaska  devoted  to  the 

1  In  1898  a  few  pairs  of  foxes  from  Long  Island  were  sent  to  Foxcroft,  Maine, 
and  placed  in  wire-fenced  yards.  The  animals  were  all  pups  of  that  season  but  I 
am  informed  that  several  foxes  were  raised  in  1899. 


FOXES    ON    THE    PRIBILOF    ISLANDS  361 

breeding  of  foxes,  are  leased  from  the  United  States  for 
this  purpose  and  much  interest  is  being  taken  by  Govern- 
ment officials  in  the  results  of  the  experiments.  The 
natives  of  Alaska  also  are  beginning  to  realize  the  possi- 
bility of  preserving  at  least  a  few  of  the  fur-bearing  animals 
and  now  four  of  the  islands  devoted  to  blue  foxes  are 
owned  wholly  or  in  part  by  natives  who  have  become 
interested  in  the  industry  through  the  reports  of  their 
friends  and  relatives  employed  in  caring  for  the  animals 
on  other  islands.  The  natives  by  nature  and  experience 
make  first-class  keepers  and  through  these  positions  obtain 
a  good  living  for  themselves,  while  rendering  excellent 
service  to  their  employers. 

In  addition  to  the  localities  referred  to  above,  fox  raising 
may  be  said  to  be  in  operation  on  at  least  one  of  the  Pri- 
bilof  Islands,  which  furnished  the  original  parent  stock. 
For  many  years  the  natives  of  these  two  islands,  St.  Paul 
and  St.  George,  which  compose  the  group,  trapped  the  foxes 
during  the  winter  season  irrespective  of  sex,  and  sold  the 
skins  so  obtained  for  a  nominal  price  to  the  company 
holding  the  sealing  lease.  In  recent  years,  however,  the 
work  has  been  carried  on  in  a  more  systematic  manner 
and  yields  much  larger  returns.  At  the  present  time  the 
corporation  leasing  the  islands,  The  North  American  Com- 
mercial Company,  also  leases  the  right  from  the  United 
States  to  purchase  all  blue  fox  skins  obtained,  at  the  rate 
of  $5.00  per  skin,  which  income  is  devoted  as  a  community 
fund  to  the  support  of  the  natives  and  is  disbursed  to  them 
under  the  direction  of  the  Treasury  Department.  This 
became  necessary  by  reason  of  the  great  decrease  in  the 
seal  herd  with  its  resulting  diminution  of  revenue  to  the 
natives.  The  amount  so  contributed  is  somewhere  be- 
tween $3,000  and  $4,000  per  annum.  The  Company, 
under  the  lease,  takes  entire  charge  of  the  fox  business 
just  as  it  does  of  the  taking  of  sealskins. 


362 


WASHBURN 


The  business  is  carried  on  only  on  St.  George  Island,  and 
as  now  conducted  is  the  result  of  several  years  of  experi- 
menting by  the  Company.  A  suitable  house  has  been 
erected  on  St.  George  for  storing  food  and  skinning  the 
foxes.  Adjacent  to  this  is  a  large  square  enclosed  with 
wire  netting,  where  the  foxes  are  fed  and  the  selection  of 
males  for  killing  is  made.  Only  a  few  females  are  killed, 
the  Company  proceeding  on  the  basis  of  the  belief  that 
the  foxes  are  polygamous.  It  has  been  found,  here,  as 
elsewhere,  however,  that  this  view  is  not  fully  sustained 


FOX   CAGE-TRAPS,    FOX   FARM   NEAR   KADIAK. 

by  experience,  for,  although  females  have  not  been  killed 
on  St.  George  Island  for  several  years,  there  is  no  very 
perceptible  increase  in  the  size  of  the  herd. 

The  food  used  is  cooked  meal  and  fish  and  salted  seal 
meat,  the  latter  being  freshened  before  giving  it  to  the 
foxes.  Owing  to  the  vast  number  of  birds  which  frequent 
the  island  it  is  only  necessary  to  feed  the  foxes  during  the 
severe  weather  of  the  winter  months.  White  foxes  now  and 
then  appear  on  the  islands  and  are  shot  wherever  found  to 
avoid  the  injurious  effects  of  admixture  with  the  blues. 


HABITS    OF    FOXES    ON    PRIBILOF    ISLANDS  363 

A  marked  difference  exists  between  the  habits  of  the 
foxes  on  St.  Paul  and  St.  George  islands  and  materially 
affects  the  question  of  their  cultivation.  On  St.  George 
they  flock  around  the  village  in  winter  and  seize  greedily 
any  articles  of  food  lying  about  and,  as  previously  noted, 
are  quite  tame  and  readily  handled  in  the  large  wire  cage. 
On  St.  Paul  they  are  rarely  seen  about  the  village  and  the 
carcasses  of  mules  dying  in  the  winter  have  remained  un- 
touched. Nor  has  it  been  possible  to  induce  them  to  con- 
gregate at  any  fixed  place,  even  by  scattering  dried  fish 
about.  The  result  is  that  although  much  study  has  been 
given  the  matter,  no  system  has  yet  been  devised  of  culti- 
vating the  foxes  or  handling  them  on  St.  Paul  Island 
except  by  using  steel  traps,  which  destroy  male  and 
female  alike;  this  necessitates  limiting  the  catch  so  as  not 
to  encroach  too  closely  on  the  breeding  stock.  The  dif- 
ference in  habits  on  the  two  islands  presents  a  problem 
which  has  not  yet  been  solved,  nor  has  the  further  fact 
been  explained  fully  that  although  on  St.  George  Island 
the  foxes  have  received  abundance  of  food  and  the  females 
have  been  carefully  protected,  there  has  been  no  appreci- 
able increase;  on  the  contrary,  as  compared  with  olden 
times,  there  has  been  a  diminution.  At  present,  the  total 
catch  ranges  from  600  to  800,  while  in  former  years  it  was 
often  twice  that  number.  The  suggestion,  which  has 
much  force,  has  been  made  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Redpath,  a  com- 
petent observer  of  twenty  years'  experience  on  the  islands, 
that  many  foxes  are  carried  off  and  lost  on  the  ice,  which 
in  recent  years  has  annually  floated  down  from  the  north 
and  surrounded  the  islands. 

In  addition  to  the  experiments  in  raising  blue  foxes 
which  it  has  carried  on,  the  Semidi  Propagating  Company 
has  attempted  to  domesticate  the  beautiful  silver-gray  fox. 
Several  years  ago  this  company,  in  connection  with  two 
local  men  of  Boothbay,  Maine,  purchased  Outer  Heron 


364  WASHBURN 

Island,  situated  about  sixty  miles  northeast  of  Portland, 
Maine,  and  stocked  it  with  Alaska  silver-grays.  These 
foxes  have  shown  some  increase,  but  the  difficulty  of 
catching  them  in  traps  not  destructive  of  life  has  pre- 
vented the  obtaining  of  definite  information  concerning 
them.  Although  the  pelt  of  the  silvery-gray  is  far  more 
valuable  than  that  of  the  blue  fox,  being  worth  from  $100 
to  $200  for  reasonably  good  skins,  and  rare  specimens  of 
the  dark  variety  bringing  fabulous  prices,  still  the  belief 
among  the  owners  of  the  fox  islands  seems  to  be  that  the 
blue  fox  is  the  more  profitable  for  breeding  purposes. 
They  are  more  easily  domesticated  and  are  not  afraid  to  go 
into  the  box  trap  which  it  is  necessary  to  use  to  catch 
them  without  harm;  while  the  silver-gray,  though  getting 
reasonably  tame  so  far  as  coming  to  the  feeding  place  is 
concerned,  absolutely  refuses  to  go  into  any  door  which 
might  be  shut  on  it,  or  enter  any  kind  of  a  visible  trap, 
and  the  male  has  the  reputation  of  killing  the  young  pups 
if  he  finds  them  unprotected  by  the  mother,  which  must, 
from  time  to  time,  seek  food  for  herself  and  young,  so 
that  thus  far  the  raising  of  silver-gray  foxes  has  not  been 
a  success  where  the  foxes  have  been  allowed  to  run  to- 
gether at  large.  Several  successful  experiments,  how- 
ever, have  been  made  with  the  silver-gray  foxes  in  small 
yards  where  the  females  could  be  separated  at  the  season 
of  bringing  forth  their  young. 

It  had  previously  been  supposed  that  foxes  were  polyg- 
amous and,  until  recently,about  one  male  has  been  reserved 
for  every  five  females ;  but  the  Semidi  Propagating  Com- 
pany is  now  making  experiments  at  two  of  its  stations  with 
a  more  equal  division  of  the  sexes,  and  the  National  Zo- 
ological Park  at  Washington,  D.  C.  is  also  making  experi- 
ments in  the  pairing  of  foxes  and  in  the  use  of  foods,  which 
may  lead  to  valuable  results.  A  dozen  blue  foxes  taken 
from  the  station  at  Long  Island  are  kept  in  wire-fenced 


FOX    FARMING  365 

yards  in  the  park  and  it  is  expected  that  as  a  result  of  the 
investigations  now  going  on  not  only  will  the  beautiful  blue 
foxes  be  preserved,  but  the  domestication  of  many  other 
fine  fur-bearing  animals  that  must  otherwise  soon  become 
extinct  will  be  attempted.  It  is  believed  that  the  time  is 
not  far  distant  when  hundreds  of  the  now  useless  islands 
of  Alaska  will  be  utilized  in  the  propagation  of  fur-bear- 
ing animals,  and  that  many  of  the  farmers  of  the  northern 
states  will  have  wire-fenced  enclosures  of  an  acre  or  two 
devoted  to  this  industry,  from  which  they  will  reap  a  far 
greater  return  than  from  all  the  rest  of  their  live  stock. 

Furs,  being  luxuries,  are  the  most  variable  of  all  com- 
modities in  their  market  values.  The  skins  of  the  blue 
fox  furnish  no  exception.  Again,  their  value  is  largely 
dependent  on  quality,  and  the  variation  in  quality  among 
skins  is  very  great.  They  may  be  said  to  range  in  value 
from  $5  to  $50  —  these  two  prices  being  the  extremes; 
the  latter  is  only  paid  for  skins  of  unsurpassed  excellence. 

NOTE. — On  July  16,  1899,  Mr.  M.  L.  Washburn,  author  of  this 
article  and  one  of  the  founders  and  principal  owners  of  the  Semidi 
Propagating  Co.,  conducted  a  party  consisting  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  E.  H. 
Harriman  and  other  members  of  the  Expedition,  from  Kadiak  village 
to  the  fox  farm  on  Long  Island  —  about  an  hour's  sail  in  the  naphtha 
launches.  The  buildings  and  grounds  were  inspected  and  a  few  old 
foxes  were  seen  on  the  beach,  and  a  number  of  young  about  one  of  the 
barns. — ED. 


THE  SONG  OF  THE  INNUIT1 

BY  WILLIAM    H.  DALL 


Oh,  we  are  the  Innuit  people, 

Who  scatter  about  the  floe 
And  watch  for  the  puff  of  the  breathing  seal, 

While  the  whistling  breezes  blow. 
By  a  silent  stroke  the  ice  is  broke, 

And  the  struggling  prey  below, 
With  the  crimson  flood  of  its  spouting  blood 

Reddens  the  level  snow. 

Oh,  we  are  the  Innuit  people, 

Who  flock  to  the  broken  rim 
Of  the  Arctic  pack  where  the  walrus  lie 

In  the  polar  twilight  dim. 
Far  from  the  shore  their  surly  roar 

Rises  above  the  whirl 
Of  the  eager  wave,  as  the  Innuit  brave 

Their  flying  lances  hurl. 

1  Innuit  is  the  name  by  which  the  Eskimo  calls  himself  and  his  people  from 
Greenland  to  Mount  St.  Elias.  The  topek  is  the  winter  house  of  turf  and  wal- 
rus hide,  as  contrasted  with  the  igloo  or  snow-house,  used  where  there  is  no 
wood.  All  Innuit  believe  in  evil  spirits  which  dwell  inland  from  the  shores  ;  in 
Greenland  they  are  supposed  to  inhabit  the  Nunataks  or  peaks  which  rise  like 
islands  out  of  the  bosom  of  the  glaciers.  In  times  of  starvation  Innuit  ethics 
allow  a  mother  to  expose  an  infant,  for  whom  she  cannot  supply  food,  in  the 
snow  to  die.  The  child's  mouth  is  usually  stuffed  with  grass,  as  otherwise  its 
spirit  would  return  and  be  heard  crying  about  the  house  at  night. 

(367) 


368 


DALL 


Oh,  we  are  the  Innuit  people, 

Who  lie  in  the  topek  warm; 
While  the  northern  blast  flies  strong  and  fast, 

And  fiercely  roars  the  storm; 


Recounting  the  ancient  legends, 

Of  fighting,  hunting,  and  play, 
When  our  ancestors  came  from  the  southland  tame, 

To  the  glorious  Arctic  day. 


There  is  one  sits  by  in  silence, 

With  terror  in  her  eyes: 
For  she  hears  in  dreams  the  piteous 

screams 

Of  a  cast-out  babe  that  dies  — 
Dies  in  the  snow  as  the  keen  winds 

blow, 

And  the  shrieking  northers  come 
Of  that  dreadful  day  when  she  starv- 
ing lay, 
Alone  in  her  empty  home. 


THE    SONG    OF    THE    INNUIT 


369 


Oh,  we  are  the  Innuit  people, 

And  we  lie  secure  and  warm, 
Where  the  ghostly  folk  of  the  Nunatak 

Can  never  do  us  harm. 
Under  the  stretching  walrus-hide, 

Where  at  the  evening  meal 
The  well-filled  bowl  cheers 
every  soul, 

Heaped  high  with  steam- 
ing seal 


The  Awful   Folk   of  the 
Nunatak 

Come  down  in  the  hail  and  snow, 
And  slash  the  skin  of  the  kayak  thin, 

To  work  the  hunter  woe. 
They  steal  the  fish  from  the  next  day's  dish, 

And  rot  the  walrus  lines  — 
But  they  fade  away  with  the  dawning  day, 

As  the  light  of  summer  shines. 

Oh,  we  are  the  Innuit  people, 

Of  the  long,  bright  Arctic  day  : 
When  the  whalers  come  and 

the  poppies  bloom, 
And  the   ice-floe   shrinks 

away: 

Afar  in  the  buoyant  umiak, 
We    feather    our    paddle 

blades, 

And  laugh  in  the  light  of  the  sunshine  bright, 
Where  the  White  Man's  schooner  trades. 

Oh,  we  are  the  Innuit  people, 
Rosy  and  brown  and  gay; 


37° 


DALL 


And  we  shout  as  we  sing  at  the  wrestling  ring, 

Or  toss  the  ball  at  play. 
In  frolic  chase  we  oft  embrace 
The  waist  of  a  giggling  maid 
As  she  runs  on  the  sand  of 

the  Arctic  strand, 
Where  the  ice-bear's 
bones  are  laid. 


Oh,  we  are  the  Innuit  people, 

Content  in  our  northern 

home; 

While  the  kayak's  prow  cuts 
the  curling  brow 

Of  the  breaker's  snowy  foam. 
The  merry  Innuit  people, 

Of  the  cold,  grey  Arctic  sea, 
Where  the  breaching  whale,  the  aurora  pale 

And  the  snow-white  foxes  be. 

PORT  CLARENCE,  ALASKA, 
July  13,  1899. 


INDEX 


Abercrombie,  Capt.  W.  R.  262 
Abies  amabilis  246 

lasiocarpa  240,  246 
Afognak  Island,  area  263 

forests  244 

salmon  349-350 
Afterglow  280,  286 
Aghileen  Pinnacles  88 
Agriculture  271 
Air,  elementary  facts  279-289 
Akutan  Island  169,  305 
Alaska,  area  257-258 

boundary  33,  198,  241 

climates  267-272 

forests  235-256,  272 

history  185-204 

population  273-274 

resources  274-276 

scenery  276-277 

Alaska  Commercial  Co.  81,185, 3°3»  3°5 
Alaska  Peninsula   86-87,   88-89,    "i, 

I33-I34»  2S7.  264 
natives  168 

trees  236,  237,  244,  245 
volcanos  88,  284 
Alaska  or  yellow  cedar  (  Chamcecyparis 

nootkatensis}  247 
Albatross  following  ship  64 
'Albatross,'  U.   S.    Fish  Commission 

Steamer  312,  324,  332 
Alder,  Oregon  (Alnus    oregona}    247, 

249 
Alder,  shrubby  (Alnus  sinuata*)  63,  83, 

219,  222,  225,  249,  251,  252. 
Aleutian  Islands  79,  133-134 


Aleutian  Islands,  fortified  posts     196 

natives  167-170 

surveys  200 

treeless  236,  244 

village  169 

Aleutian  sandpiper  in 
Aleutian  song  sparrow  80,  225 
Aleuts  165,  167-170,  189 
Alexander  Archipelago  127,  128-129 

forests  235,  244,  246 
Aliutorski  Islands  188 
Allen,  Lieut.  Henry  T.  240,  241 
'  Alpine  glow '  287,  288 
Alpine  hemlock  (Tsuga   mertensiana) 

247,  252 

Alpine  meadow  220-221 
Alsek  River  260 
Altitude  of  timberline  241 
Amherst  Glacier  70 
Anadyr  River  186 
Anderson,    Capt.,  Discovery  of   New 

Bogoslof  volcano  303-305 
Anemone,  yellow  106 
Annette  Island  24,  152-155 
Antarctic  glaciers  124,  259 
Anvik  199 
Arbor vitae  or  red  cedar  (  Thuja  plicata) 

247,  272 
Arctic  explorations  198,  199 

fox,  232 

terns  71,  217,  218,  220 

tundras  205,  225,  231,  232 

twilight,  281 

Arteaga,  early  explorer  190 
Aruncus  250 

(371) 


372 


INDEX 


Asia  99,  100,  102,  187 

Aspen  239 

Atlantic  cables  201,  203 

Atmosphere  of  Alaska  279-289 

Attu  Island,  blue  fox  360 

Auk  Glacier  121 

Auk,  little  98 

Auklet,  least  227,  228,  231 

paroquet  233 
Auklets  109,  227 
Avalanches  23,  256,  302 

Baird  Glacier  121 
Bald  eagle  20,  21,  29,  207,  226 
Balm  of  Gilead  251 
Balsam  fir  240 

poplar  239,  250 
Barabara  169,  170 
Baranof  185,  192,  194-195,  196,  292 
Barbour  195 

Barnard,  Lieut.,  killed  200 
Barry  Glacier  71-73,  74,  126 
Bear,  Kadiak  79,  85,  87 
Becker,  George  F.  212,  317,  320,  335 
Bedford  Pim,  explorer  200 
Bees,  wild  106 
Belkofski  89 
Bergs  123,  124,  125,  131 

blue  37,  38 
Bering  Sea  94,  196,  264-265 

absence  of  glaciers  134 

absence  of  trees  243,  272 

birds  227,  230,  231 

climate  270 

fogs  270,  271 

islands  89,  264,  265,  291-336 

tundra  236 

Bering  Strait  102,  187,  200 
Bering,  Vitus,  expeditions  185,  187-188 

death  187-188 
Birch  canoes  237 
Birch,  paper-barked  236-237 
Birds,  article  by  Keeler  205-234 

at  Bogoslof  Volcano  329-332 

killed  by  steam  330 

struck  by  engine  7 
Bluebells  83 
Blue  foxes,  H4,'357-365 
Bogoslof  Islands  94-95 


Bogoslof,  article  by  Merriam  291-336 

bars  or  spits  323-326 

birds  94-95,  329-332 

Grewingk  303-320 

materials  320 

New  Bogoslof  303-320 

Old  Bogoslof  291-302 

plants  328-329 

physical  history  327-328 

principal  papers  335-336 

sealions  95,  332-334 

Ship  or  Sail  Rock  321-323 
Bomb  Point  75-76 
Boundary  33,  198,  241 
Brady  Glacier  130 
Brady,  Governor  xxiii,  50 
Brake  (Pteris  aquilina)  250 
Brewer,   Prof.   W.   H.   xxxiii,    xxxvi, 
xxxvii,  18,  62-63 

article  on   atmosphere   of   Alaska 
279-289 

oration  86 
Bristol  Bay  196 

British  vessels  seized  by  Spanish  191 
Bryn  Mawr  Glacier  69,  127 
Bunchberry  221 
Bumble  bees  61,  106 
Burroughs,  John   xxxiii,   xxxvii,   213, 
224,  226 

narrative  of  expedition  1-118 

poem  on  Lapland  Longspur  91-93 

poem  on  Oregon  Robin  84 
Butterwort  221 

California  196,  281,  283 

Campion,  moss  47 

Canada  grouse  221 

Canneries,  salmon    23,  65,  74~75»  79> 

156,  341-347.  354-355 
Canoe  birch  239 
Canoes,  different  types    140,  141-143, 

162-164 
Cantwell,   Lieut.,  work    on  Bogoslof 

306-310,  322,  323,  332-333,  335 
Cape  Fox  Indian  village  116-117 
Cape  Nome  105,  276 

population  273 
Cape  Uganuk  244 
Captain  Roys  199 


INDEX 


373 


Captains  Bay  189 

Caribou  174 

Carices  253 

Carrol  Glacier  128 

Cascade  Range  glaciers  119-120 

Cassiope  83 

Cedar,  Alaska  yellow  247 

red  or  coast  247,  272 
Chamcecyparis  nootkatensis  247 
Chernofski  169 
Chickadee,  long-tailed  224,  225 

rufous-backed  28,  51,  118,  219 
Chilkat  260 

blankets  158 
Chirikof  187 
'  Choochkies  '98,  182 
Chukchi  peninsula  186 

natives  98,  174,  186-187 
Church  bells  222 

Greek  at  Kadiak  82 
at  Unalaska  91 

Metlakahtla  152,  155 
Clarence  Straits  26 
Clarkia  14 

Claytonia  105,  in,  112 
Clearwater  River  14 
Climate  of  Alaska  267-272 

of  Bering  Sea  270-271 

of  Interior  of  Alaska  271-272 

of  Pacific  Coast  267-269 
Clouds  279,  280,  285-286 
Coal  275 

Coast  forest  244-253,  272-273 
Coe,  Wesley  R.  xxxiii 
Cole,  Leon  J.  xxxv 

College  Fiord,  Prince  William  Sound 
birds  219,  220 
glaciers  69-70, 126-127 
Columbia  Fiord  262 

Glacier  67,  76,  126,  134 

River  14,  15,  192 
Columbine  61 
Colville  River  (forest)  242 
Convention  between  Great  Britain  and 

Russia  198 

Russia  and  United  States  196 
Cook  Inlet  76-77,  115,  133 

trees,  237,  244,  248,  256 
Cook,  Capt.  James  190,  321,  335 


Copper  68,  275 
Copper  River  122,  195 
forests  244 

mineral  resources  65,  266,  275 
Cormorants  109,  212 
red-faced  233 
violet-green  212 
4  Corwin,'  Revenue  Steamer  306,  310, 

3".  3",  335-336 
Cotton  grass  221 
Cottonwood  (Populus  trichocarpa  and 

P.  balsamifera)  237,  239,  249,  251 
Coville,  F.  V.  xxxiii,  18,  63,  329 
Cow  parsnip  60 
Cowslip  231 
Coyotes  9 
Crevasses  43 
Crillon  Glacier  122 
Cross  Sound  135,  260 
Crows,  Northwest  206,  221 
Curtis,  E.  S.  xxxv 

Dall,  W.  H.  xxxiv,  18,  62,  167 

article  on  Discovery  and  Explora- 
tion 185-204 

ascends  Yukon  201-202 

Bogoslof  notes  and  sketches  297- 
301,  322-323,  326,  335 

poem  on  Innuit  People  367-370 
Davidson,  George  303-305,  335 
Davidson  Glacier  30, 121 
Dawson,  G.  M.  237 
Dead  glaciers  259 
'  Dead  Horse '  trail  33 
Dead  houses  152 
Dease  and  Simpson  survey  199 
Deer  21-22,  23,  51, 140 
Dellenbaugh,  F.  S.  xxxiv,  xxxvii,  19 
Devereux,  W.  B.  xxxiv,  18,  62,  320 
Devil's  club  23,  225 
Devil's  Thumb  28 
Diamedes  Islands  103,  186,  187,  iSS 
Diorite  320 

Directory  at  Irkutsk  193-194 
Discovery  and  exploration  185-204 
Disenchantment  Bay  123,  126,  131,  261 
Distribution  of  trees,  236,  253 
Diving  birds  212,  227 
Dixon  Entrance  190 


374 


INDEX 


Dodecatheon  69,  221,  253 

'  Dora,'  schooner  303 

Doran,  Capt.  Peter  xxii,  xxxv,  xxxvi, 

62,  71-72 
Doty,  Lieut.,  photographs  of  Bogoslof 

298,  307,  309,  322 
Douglas  City  255,  273 
Douglas  fir  246,  272 
Douglas  Island  29 
Driftwood  on  Hall  and    St.  Matthew 

Islands  113 
Drosera  253 

Dry  as,  white-cupped  231 
Duck,  Harlequin  212,  229,  233,  332 
Old  Squaw  234 
Eider  102 

Duncan,  William  24-26,  152,  153-155 
Dust,  cause  of  color  in  sky  279,  285 
Dutch  Harbor  90-91,  114 
Dwarf  willows  131 

Eagle  Glacier  121 

Eagles  20,  21,  29,  207,  226 

Earthquake  89,  291,  292,  310 

East  Cape  186 

Eckinopanax  horridum  249,  250 

Edgecumbe  Volcano  50,  190 

Eggs,  shower  of  330 

Egg  hunters,  300-301 

Eider  102,  234 

Spectacled  230 

'Elder,  George  W'.,  our  steamer,  offi- 
cers xxxv 

provisioning   and    equipment 
17-18 

first  ship  in  Harriman  Fiord 

71-73 

Russell  Fiord  261 
Elk  Mountains  3 

Elliot,  D.  G.  xxi,  xxxiv,  xxxvi,  18,  72 
Emerson,  B.  K.  xxxiv,  xxxvi,  18,  63,  99 
Emmons,  Lieut.  Geo.  T.  159 
Endicott  Mountains  242 
Epilobium  131,  216,  220,  250 
Equisetum  250,  253 
Eskimo  99-104,  108,  171-183 

article  by  Grinnell  167-183 

babies  104,  179 

burial  ground  176-177 


Eskimo  camp,  Port  Clarence  102-104, 
178-183 

children,  101-102,  176,  182 

clothing,  176,  182 

dismal  outlook  183 

dogs  101,  177,  179,  180 

first  seen  68,  167 

houses  101,  171,  175 

Innuit  (song)  367-370 

Kadiak  189 

Kayak  68,  179, 180 

King  Island  177-178 

labrets  177,  178,  182 

Plover  Bay  village  99-102 

Prince  William  Sound  67,  167 

St.  Lawrence    Island   (starvation) 
1 08 

skin  boats  or  umiaks  100,  103, 178- 
179 

tattooing,  175-176 
Eskimoan  stock,  167,  195 
Etolin  Island  27 
Expedition,  Bering  187-188 

Harriman,  members  xxxiii-xxxv 
Exploration,  history  185-204 

Farming,  doubtful  271,  276 

fox,    article    by    Washburn    357- 

365 
Fairweather  ground  190 

Range  48,  115,  135,  235,  244 
altitude  48,  52,  260. 
glaciers  52-53,  129-130 
Fernow,  B.  E.  xxxiv,  xxxvi,  xxxvii,  18 

article  on  Alaska  Forests  235-256 
Ferns  83,  218 
Finch,  Aleutian  rosy  113,  226,  227,  232 

house  12 

Lincoln  209 

rosy  (Hepburn)  47,  210,  215 
Fiords  19-21,  122,  123,  258,  262 
Fir,  red  or  Douglas  246,  272 
Firs,  246 
Fish  as  a  resource  274 

drying  114 

Fisher,  Dr.  A.  K.  xxxiv,  18,  331 
Fisheries,  Salmon  337-355 
Fish  hooks,  primitive  139 
Fleur-de-lis  83,  222,  253 


INDEX 


375 


Flora,  meeting  of  Atlantic  and  Pacific 

237 

Flycatcher,  Arkansas  12 
Fog  269-271,  289 

in  Bering  Sea  98,  107,  108, 1 12,  270- 

271 
Forests,  article  by  Fernow  235-256 

article  by  Gannett  272-273 

buried  44,  45,  130,  251 

coast  23,  244-253 

composition  246-247 

destroyed   by  glaciers   52-53,  130, 
251-252 

economic  value  243,  253-256 

meeting   of    Atlantic  and   Pacific 
236-237 

of  interior  239-243 
Forest  fires  118,  256,  284 
Forgetmenots  83,  102,  222 
Fort  Kolmakoff  established  198 

Macpherson  199 

Selkirk  202 

Wrangell,  27,  28,  247,  255 

Yukon,  199,  202 
Fox,  Arctic  232 

blue  113,  274 

breeding  359-361,  362 

food  114,  115,  359,  362,  364 

farming  68,  1 14,  357-365 
'  Fox  ranch,'  original  358,  359 
Fox  sparrow,  Townsend  47 
Franklin  198 

search  expeditions  199-200 
Franklin's  Return  Reef  198 
Frederick  Sound  28 
Fritellarias  222 

Fuertes,  L.  A.  xxxv,  xxxvii,  63 
Fulmar,  Pacific  114,  229,  233,  234 
Fur-bearing  animals  188,  274,  357 
Fur-seals  96-97,  274 
Fur  trade  189,  190,  191 

Gannett,  Henry  xxxiv,  xxxvi,  18,  73,  76 
article   on   Geography  of    Alaska 

257-277 

climate  267-272 
forests  272-273 
population  273-274 
resources  274-277 


Geikie  Glacier  128 

Geography  of  Alaska,  article  by  Gan- 
nett 257-277 
Geranium,  wild  83 
Geum  calthtflorum  253 
Geum,  golden  221 

Gifford,  R.  Swain  xxxiv,  xxxvii,  115 
Gilbert,  G.  K.,  xxxiv,  xxxvi,  18,  40,  62 

physical  history  of  Bogoslof  327- 

328 

Glaciation  128-129,  134-135,  258-259 
Glacier,  Amherst  69-70 

Auk  121 

Baird  121 

Barry  71-73,  74,  126 

Brady  130 

Bryn  Mawr  69,  127 

Carrol  128 

Columbia  67,  76,  126,  134 

Davidson,  30,  121 

Eagle  121 

Geikie  128 

Grand  Pacific  128 

Grand  Plateau  122 

Harvard  69,  126 

Harriman  73,  126,  263 

Hubbard  55-56,  126,  131,  261 

Hugh  Miller  127-128 

La  Perouse  52-53,  122,  129-130 

LeConte  122,  124 

Lucia  252 

Malaspina  63,  121,  122,  131,  135,261 

Miles  122 

Morse  45-46 

Muir  35-47,  126,  128,  259 

Nunatak  59,  131 

Patterson  28,  121 

Radcliffe  69,  127 

Rendu  128 

Serpentine  72,  126 

Smith  69,  127 

Surprise  126 

Taku  125 

Turner  55-56,  60,  123, 131 

Vassar  69,  127 

Wellesley69,  127 

Yakutat  122 

Yale  69,  126 
Glaciers,  article  by  Muir  119-135 


376 


INDEX 


Glacier  moraines  37,  42,  44,  45,  46,  53, 

63,  121 
Glacier  Bay  35-48,  123,  125,  127-129 

Island,  247 

milk,  63 
Glaciers,  ancient  128-129,  133, 134-135, 

258-259 

Glaciers  of  Glacier  Bay  35-48, 123, 125, 
127-129 

of  Holkam  or  Sum  Dum  Bay  123, 
124-125 

of  Lynn  Canal,  30,  121 

of  Pacific  coast  119-135,  259-262 

of  Port  Wells  69-70,  71-74,   126- 
127,  132-133,  263 

of  Prince  Willam  Sound,  67, 69-74, 
123,  126-127,  262-263 

of  Taku  Inlet  125 

of  Yakutat  Bay  56-58,  126,  131 

recession  of  127-128 
Glenn,  Capt.  262 
Golden  plover  106,  230 
Gold  275-276 

seekers  34,  65-66,  114 
Golofnin  Bay  242 
Graham  Reach  22 
Grand  Pacific  glacier  126 

Plateau  glacier  122 
Grantly  Harbor  200 
Great  Britain  and  Russia,  convention 

198 

Greenfield,  W.  C.  298,  322,  324 
Greek  Catholic  faith  193 
Green  River,  Wyoming  5 
Grenvill  Channel  n8 
Grewingk,   Constantin  292,  295,  332, 

335 

Grewingk  Volcano  303-320 

Grosbeak,  Kadiak  pine  61,  83,  218,  224 

Grouse,  Canada  221 

Grinnell,    George    B.,    xxxiv,    xxxvi, 

xxxvii,  19 

the  Coastwise  Indians  137-165 
the  Eskimo  we  saw  167-183 
the  Salmon  Industry  337-355 

Gull,  glaucus-winged  212 

kittiwake  227,  229-230,  332 
Point  Barrow  233 
Sabine  234 


Gull,  short-billed  220 
Gulls,  71,  109,  131,  332 
Gustavus    Peninsula    (=  Point    Gus- 
tavus)  40-41 

Hsenke  Island  60 

Hague,  Capt.  303,  305 

Haida  canoes  141 

Hair  seal  fishing  60,  158,  159,  160-165 

Hall  Island,  Bering  Sea  109-111,  230- 

233.  265 

Hall,  Lieut.  306,  309 
'  Hanging  valleys  '  258-259 
'  Harems  '  of  fur-seals  96 
Harlequin  duck  212,  229,  233,  332 
Harriman,  E.  H.  xxv,  — ,  62 

kills  Kadiak  bear  85 

Preface  by  xxi-xxiii 
Harriman     Expedition,     Committees, 
xxxvi-xxxvii 

history  xxi-xxxi 

members  xxxiii-xxxv 
Harriman  family  xxxiii 
Harriman  Fiord  7 1-73,  76,  132-133,  263 

Glacier  73,  126,  263 
Harvard  Glacier  69,  126 
Hawkins  Island  247 
Haze  279,  283,  284 
Healy,  Capt.  M.  A.  306-309,  311,  322, 

335-336 

Heather  65,  221 

Hemlock,  Alpine  (Tsuga  mertensiana) 
iS2-^.  221,  247,  252-253 

Coast  (Tsuga   heterofhylla}  218, 

247-249.  250 
Highhole,  western  19 
History  of  Alaska  185-204 
Holkam  Bay  123,  124-125 
Homer  76 

Hornblende-andesite  320 
Horned  puffins  233 
Horses  17-18,  33 
Hot  Springs,  Sitka  50,  252 
Howling  valley  38-40 
Howison,  Lieut.  J.  W.  309 
Hoxhoq  152 

Hubbard  Glacier  55-56,  126,  131,  261 
Hudson  Bay  Co.  192,  198,  199 
Hugh  Miller  Glacier  127-128 


INDEX 


377 


Hummingbird,  Rufous  118,  207-208 
Humphrey,  Omar  J.  xxiii,  xxxv 
Hutli  124 
Huts,  Eskimo  99,  171-174 

Seal-hunters,  Glacier    Bay  (cuts) 
163-164 

Seal-hunters,    Yakutat    60,     158- 

159 

Hyperborean  Snowbird  in,  113 

Ice.     See  Glacier 

Icebergs  37,  38,  123,  124,  125,  131 

Ice  palisade  35-36,  67 

plateau,  vast  121-122 
Iciest  region  120 
Ice  Cape  122,  135 
Iliamna  Lake  237 

Volcano  76, 256 
Iliuliuk  91 

Indian  Point  102,  177 
Indian  River,  Sitka  50,  51 
Indians,  article  by  Grinnell  137-165 

baskets  143 

canoes  140-143 

carvings    142,    143-144,    147-150, 
156-159 

deserted  village  116-117,  HS"1^ 

fishing  138-139,  348 

food  138-139 

graves  150-152 

hunting  137-138,  140 

Hunya  (cuts)  163-164 

huts  60,  158-159,  163-164 

linguistic  families  138 

masks  149-150 

Metlakahtla  24-26,  152-156 

oil  boxes  159-160 

potlatch  144-145 

Seal  hunting  60,  158-165 

Sitka  50,  156-158 

totem  poles  116-117,  146-148,  150 

Yakutat  158-165 

villages  116-117,  145-146,  152, 158- 

165 

Innuit  People  (poem)  367-370 
Insects  106 

International  Boundary  33,  271 
Inverarity,  D.  G.  xxxv 
Iris  83,  222,  253 


Irrigation  12,  13 
Isanotski  Volcano  90 

Jacobs  ladder  83 
Jaeger,  Parasitic  218 

Pomarine  218 
Jaegers  61,  218,  219 
Jay,  Steller  28,  118,  208,  219 
Junco,  Oregon  28,  40 
Juneau  29,  115,  156,  207 

Kachemak  Bay  76,  137 
Kadiak  bear  79,  85,  87 

birds  80,  83,  221-225 

climate  81,  267-268 

forests  80,  85,  114,  237,  244,  255- 
256,  272 

history  189,  193,  196 

Island  77-87,  114-115,  263  (area) 

original  inhabitants  167,  168,  189 

pine  grosbeak  218-224 

salmon  79,  345 

verdure  79,  83,  114,  133 

village  79-82 
Kamchatka  187,  188 
Kamchatkan  traditions  188 
Kayak  68,  179,  180 
Kearney,  T.  H.  xxxiv 
Keeler,  Charles  xxxiv,  63 

article  on  Alaska  birds  205-234 

poem  xxxix 
Kenai  Peninsula  263 
Kennicott,  Robert  200-201 
Kincaid,  Trevor  xxxiv 
King  Island,  103,  177 
King  Id.  Eskimo  177-178 
Kingfisher,  Belted  209 
Kinglet,  Golden-crowned  51,  118,  225 

Ruby-crowned  217 
Kittiwakes  227,  229-230,  332 
Klondike  33,  34,  185,  210,  267 
Koluschan  stock,  Indians  138,  143 
Kondakoff,  Stepan  85 
Knik  River  237 
Kotzebue  Sound  200,  266 
Kotzebue,  Otto  196,  291,  292,  336 
Kowak  River  242,  266 
Koyukun  Indians  200 
Koyukuk  River  266,  273,  275 


378 


INDEX 


Kukak  Bay  78,  86-87,  244 
Kuskokwim  Bay  236 

River  198,  266,  275 
Kwakiutl  Indians  152 

Labrets  177,  178,  182 
Lady's  slipper  83,  222 
Lake  Bennett  34 

Clark  237 

Lindeman  243 
Langsdorf  293-295,  332,  336 
Lapland  Longspur  91,  97,  in,  226,  230 

poem  91-93 
La  Perouse  190-191 
La  Perouse  Glacier  52-53, 122, 129-130, 

252 

Laramie  plains,  Wyoming  4 
Lark-bunting  3 
Larks,  Shore  7 
Latourelle  Falls,  Oregon  15 
Law  to  protect  salmon  346-347,  351- 

353 

Lebarge,  Michael  201 
LeConte  Glacier  122,  124 
Lectures  on  ship  62-63 
Leucosticte,  Aleutian  113,  226,  227 

Hepburn  210,  215 
Lincoln  Finch  209 
Linguistic  families  138 
Linnet,  red  poll  219 
Listera  250 
Lituya  Bay  123,  190 
Long  Island,  fox  farm  114,  115,  244, 

357-360.  364 

spruce  grove  244-245 
Longspur,  Alaska    Lapland  91,    no, 

226,  230,  232 

Loon,  Black-throated  212 
Lowe  Inlet  23-24,  246 
Lucia  Glacier  252 
Lumber  254,  255 
Lupines  13,  61,  227 
Lutke,  F.  198,  296,  336 
Lycopodium  250 
Lynn  Canal  30,  121 

Mackenzie  River  198,  199,  242 
Magpies  in  Idaho  13 

on  Kadiak  Id.  114,  225 


Malaspina  Glacier  63,    121,    122,  131, 

135.  261 

Malaspina,  Spanish  navigator  261-262 
Massacre  at  Sitka  195 
Meadowlarks  3,  9 

Menyanthes  trifoliata  &  cristagalli  253 
Menziesia  249 
Merriam,    C.  Hart,  xxi,  xxxiv,   xxxvi, 

iS,   122,  2IO,  219,  221 

article  Bogoslof  Volcano  291-336 

Introduction,  xxv-xxxi 
Merrill,  George  P.  321,  336 
Metlakahtla  Indians  24-26,  152-156 
Middleton  Island  64 
Milbank  Sound  22 
Miles  Glacier  122 
Mineral  resources  243,  275-276 
Miners  65 
Mines  243,  275-276 

Treadwell  29,  30,  275 
Mirage  87,  286 
Mohler,  A.  L.  xxi 

Moon,  brightness  and  paleness  283-284 
Moraines.     See  glaciers 
Morris,  Dr.  L.  R.  xxi,  xxxv,  xxxvi,  xxxvii 
Morse  Glacier  45-46 
Mosquitoes  69,  87,  106 
Moss  campion  47 
Mount  Fairweather  48 

McKinley  266 

Palmerston  21 

Rainier,  glaciers  120 

St.  Elias54,  115,  235,  263 

San  Jacinto  190 

Shasta,  glaciers  119 

Whipple  27 

Wrangell  266 

Wright  46-47 
Muir  cabin  35 

Glacier  35-47,  126,  128,  259 
Muir,  John  xxxiv,  xxxvi,  18,  36,  38,  40, 

63.  73        . 

article  on  Glaciers  119-135 
Muller,  Gerhard  Friedrick  186 
Multnomah  Falls,  Oregon  15-17 
Murre,  California  212,  228 

Pallas  228-229,  232,  329-332 
Murres  at  Bogoslof  Volcano  329-332 

behavior  in  fog  331 


INDEX 


379 


Murres'  eggs  330 

myriads   94-95,   109-110,231,329- 

332 
Murrelet,  Marbled  71,  212 

Narrative  of  Expedition  1-118 

Natives,  article  by  Grinnell  137-183 
See  also  Aleuts,  Eskimo  and  Indians 

Nelson,  G.  F.  xxxv,  xxxvii,  63 

New  Archangel  196 

Bogoslof  or  Grewingk  303-320 
Metlakahtla.     See  Metlakahtla 

Noatak  River  242,  266,  275 

Nome,  Cape  105,  273,  276 

Nootka  taken  191 

North  American  Commercial  Co.  85, 
36i 

Northeast  passage  192 

North  Semidi,  original  '  fox  ranch '  358 

Northwest  passage  261 

Nulato  199,  200,  201 

Nunatak  Glacier  59, 131 

Nushagak,  fortified  post  196 

Old  Bogoslof  291-302 

Oneonta  Gorge,  Oregon  15 

Orca,  Salmon  cannery  65,  74-75,  344 

Orchid  222 

Oregon  Robin  or  Varied  Thrush  40, 

51,  83-85,  223 
poem  84 
Ouzel,  Water  51 
Owl,  Snowy  HI,  232 
Oyster-catchers  21,  71,  220 

Palache,  Charles  xxxiv,  xxxvi,  18,  40, 

219 

Pallas  Murre  230,  232 
Paddles  (canoe)  140-141,  247 
Parkas  176,  182 
Passage  Canal  262 
Patterson  Glacier  28,  121 
Pavlof  volcanoes  88 
Pedicularis  106,  231 
People  with  tusks  182-183 
Phalaropes  20 

Phyllodoce  glanduliftora  253 
Picea  canadensis  239 

sitchensis.     See  Sitka  spruce 


Pigeon  guillemots  212,  230,  231 

Pine,  gray  240 

Pinus  contorta(or  murrayana)  237,  240, 

246,  249, 250 

Pipit,  or  titlark  47,  59,  93,  210,  211,  214 
Plains  3,  4 

sagebrush  7-9 
Plover  Bay,  Siberia  99,  101,  171-178, 

183,  230 

Plover,  Golden  106,  230 
Point  Barrow  198,  199 

Gustavus  40-41,  249-250 
Polar  bears  108,  113 
Polemoniums  222,  227,  231 
Popof,  Peter  Iliunsen  186 

Island  87,  225 

Poppy,  yellow  Arctic  98,  102,  227,  231 
Population  273-274 
Populus  balsamifera  237,  239,  249 

trichocarpa  237,  249,  251 
Porcupine  River  199,  241,  266 
Port  Clarence  102-106,  178-183 

Valdez  262 

Wells  69-74,  127,  262 
Potlatches  144-145 
Pribilof  Islands,  arrival  96 

birds  97-98,  227 

fog  271 

foxes  361 

fur-seals  96-97 
Primrose,  purple  105,  230 
Prince  Frederick  Sound  121 
Prince  of  Wales  Island  27,  247 
Prince  William  Sound  63-76,  132-133, 
262-263 

birds  219-221 

forests  132,  244,  248,  253 

fox  farm  68 

glaciers  67,  69-74,  I23»  126-127 

salmon  cannery  65,  74-75,  344 
Princess  Royal  Island  246 
Promishleniki  187,  188 
Propeller  mended  74 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  246,  272 
Ptarmigan  47,  71 

coloration  215,  219 

White-tailed  215-216 

Willow  215,  219 
Puffins  109,  227-228,  231 


38o 


INDEX 


Puffins,  horned  227,  228,  233,  332 

Tufted  212,  227,  228 
Puget  Sound  trees  246,  248,  254,  272 
Pullen,  Robert,  boat  journey  199 
Purington,     C.    W.,  photographs     of 

Bogoslof  317,  318,  324 
Pyrola  250 
Pyrus  rivularis  249 

Quartz,  gold-bearing  29 

mines  275-276 
Queen  Charlotte  Sound  22 

Radcliffe  Glacier  69,  127 

Rainfall  242,  268-270 

Rampart  House  241 

Ravens  in  southeastern  Alaska  24,  26, 

51,  206-207 
at  Kadiak  85,  223 
at  Unalaska  226 
Red  Fir  or  Douglas  Spruce   (Pseudo- 

tsuga  taxifolia)  246 
Redoubt  Volcano  76 
Redpoll  223,  226 
Rendu  Glacier  128 
Revenue-Marine  204,  307 
Rhododendron,  dwarf  83 
Ribes  249,  250 
Ridgway,  Robert  xxxiv,  xxxvi,  18,  40, 

93,  216-218 

Ringgold  and  Rodgers  exploring  ex- 
pedition 200 

Ritter,  W.  E.  xxxiv,  xxxvi,  18,  63 
Rivers,  underground  12 
Robin,  Oregon  or  Varied  40,  51,  83-85, 

223 

Western  40,  219 
Roses  in  bloom  114 
Rubus  249 

Russell  Fiord  56,  58,  59,  60,  261 
Russia  and  Great  Britain,  convention 

198 

United  States,  convention  196 
cession  257 
transfer  of  Alaska  to  United  States 

203 
Russian-American  Company  185-195, 

198,  203,  291 
boundaries  established  198 


Russian  expeditions  192,  194-195 
maps  201 
missionaries  192 
settlements  in  1820  196 

Sabine  Gull  234 

Sagebrush  4,  7-9,  13 

St.  Elias  Alps   or  Range  54,  63,  115 

121,  126,  132,  244,  260,  261 
St.  Elias,  Mount  54,  115,  235 
St.  George  Island  264,  361 

blue  fox  361-362 

St.  Lawrence  Island  107-108,  186 
St.  Matthew  Island  99,  108-113,  264- 

265 

birds  113,  234 

new  fox  113 
St.  Michael  201,  270 
St.  Paul  Island  96-98,  264 

birds  97-98,  227,  264 

foxes  358 

fur-seals  96-97 

Salix  alaxensis  and  sitchensis  249 
Salmon,  article  by  Grinnell  337~355 

on  Afognak  Island  349-350 

barricades  139,  347~348 

bellies,  salting  350-351 

berries  115,  116,  118,  218 

canneries   23,  65,  74-75,    79,  156, 

340-355 
decrease    from    over-fishing    339, 

343-344 

fishing  by  natives  138-139,  348 

industry  337~355 

hatcheries  349,  354 

laws  346,  351-352 

method  of  canning  74-75,  340-343 

output  and  value  355 

salteries  350-351 

seining  340,  344 

source  of  world's  supply  337 

spawning  ground  338,  348 

traps  348-349 

trolling  339 

Sambucus  pubens  249,  250 
Sandpiper,  Pribilof  234 
Sand  Point  87,  225 
Saunders,  DeAlton  xxxiv,  18 
Savanna  Sparrow  106 


INDEX 


Sawmills  255 

Saxifrage  83,  102,  106 

Scoters,  White-winged  216-217 

Scouring  rushes,  green  218 

Seabirds  98,  109-111,  114,212,  227-231, 

232-233.  234 
Sea  Cow  188 
Seal  (fur)  96-97,  274 

(hair),  blubber  60,  159-162 

hunting  60,  161-165 

hunter's  village,  Glacier  Bay  (cuts) 

163,  164 

Yakutat  Bay  158-165 
oil  60,  159-161 
spear  162-163 
Sealions  (Eumetopias  stelleri")  94-95, 

332,  334 

Sealskin  boots  or  mukluks  176 
Sealskins  (hair)  159,  161,  174 
Seal  Islands.     See  Pribilof  Ids. 
Sea  Otter  81,  274 
Seattle  118 
Semides  87 

Semidi  Propagating  Co.  360 
Serpentine  Glacier  72,  126 
Seymour  Narrows  20 
Shadow,  earth's  281-282 
Shearwater,  slender-billed  229 
Sheldon  Jackson  Museum  156 
Shelikof  Strait  263 
Shell  heaps  169 
Ship  on  rocks  98,  313-314 
Ship  or  Sail  Rock  297,  321-323 
Shishaldin  Volcano  90 
Shoemaker,  Capt.  C.  F.  307 
Shoshone  Falls  7-12 
Shumagin  Islands  87-88,  114,  167,  225, 

275.  360 

Siberia,  our  visit  99-102,  171-178 
Siberian  Eskimo  99-101,  171-178 

reindeer  174 

yellow  wagtail  230 
Sibiriaks  188,  189 
Sierra  and  Coast  ranges  246,  252 
Sierra  Nevada  glaciers  119 
Silene  112 
Siskin,  Pine  118 
Sitka  48-52 

Bear  140 


Sitka  Indians  156-158 

population  273 

temperature  and  rainfall  267-269 
Sitka  or  tideland  spruce  (Picea  sitcken- 
sis)  at  Glacier  Bay  249-251 

at  Kadiak  77,  80,  83,  244-246,  248, 
255-256 

at  Prince  William  Sound  133,  221, 
248,  255 

at  Sitka  51-52,  248,  255 

at  Unalaska  (introduced)  245-246 

at  Yakutat  Bay  218 

growing  close  to  glaciers  252 

rate  of  growth  250,  255-256 
Sitko  156-157 
Skagway  30,  31,  210,  211 

population  273 
Skin  boats  103 
Sky,  aspects  279 

color  286 

Smith  Glacier  69,  127 
Snake  River,  Idaho  7-13,  14 
Snow-bunting  or  snowflake,  common 

93.  230 

Snowflake,  Hyperborean  113,  230-232 
Sorbus  sambucifolia  249 
Song  of  the  Innuit  367-369 
Spanish  claim  191 

vessels  190 
Sparrow,  Aleutian  Song  225 

Golden-crowned  33,  47,   83,  210- 

211,  214,  222,  223,  225 

Sage  9 

Savanna  40,  221,  222 

Song  26,  40,   80,    209,   217,   222, 
226 

Townsend  209,  214,  217,  219,  226 

White-crowned  19 
Sphagnum  bog  23 
Spring  beauty  105 

Spruce,  Sitka  or  tideland  (Picea  sit- 
chensis).     See  Sitka  spruce 

White  (Picea  canadcnsis]  239,  240, 

241,  242,  243 

Stanley-Brown,  J.  xxiii,  xxxv 
Starks,  E.  C.  xxxv 
Steller  Jay  28,  118,  208,  219 

Manatee  or  Sea  Cow  188 
Stejneger,  Leonhard  319,  320 


382 


INDEX 


Stikine  River  260 

discovered  195 

Stoney,  Lieut.  G.  M.  on  Bogoslof  Vol- 
cano 310-311,  323,  330,  333,  336 
Strawberries  115,  218 
Streptopus  250 
Surprise  Glacier  126 
Sushitna  River  266,  275 
Swallow,  barn,  59,  225 

cliff  15 

violet-backed  10 

white-breasted  209 
Swans  108 
Swift,  white-throated  10 

Taku  Harbor  210 

Indian  dead  houses  152 
Inlet  and  glacier  123,  125,  260 
Pass  248 

Tanana  River  241,  266 
Tattler,  Wandering  71 
Tattooing  175-176 
Tchukchis,  98,  182,  186 
Tebenkoff  198,  296,  297,  322,  323,  332 
Temperature  of  Bering  Sea  270 
of  coast  267-268 
of  interior  242,  271-272 
Tern,  Arctic,  61,  218,  220 
Thrush,  Dwarf  Hermit  47,  58,  69,  83, 

224 

at  Kadiak  223 

at  Shumagin  Islands  225-226 
song  31,   209,   214,   217,  221, 

223,  224 
Gray-cheeked  107,  223,  224 

at  Kadiak  223,  224 
Olive-backed  19,  26 
Russet-backed  28,  40,  51,  210 
Varied  (or  Oregon  robin)  40,  51, 

83-85,  223 
song  40,  223 
Thuja  plicata  247,  272 
Thunder  Bay  124 

Tideland  spruce.     See  Sitka  spruce 
Timberline  240,  247,  252,  253 
altitude  241,  242,  253,  272 
variation  248 

tree  at  White  Pass  240,  246 
in  Sierra  and  Cascade  Range  252 


Timmerman,  L.  F.  xxxv 
Titlark  47,  59,  93,  210,  211,  214 
Tlinkit  195 

camps  152 

massacre  at  Sitka  195 
Toad  115 

Todd,  Capt.  C.  C.  310 
Tongass  Narrows  Il6 
Topeks  99,  171 

Totem  poles  116-117,  146-148,  150 
Townsend  bunting  107 

sparrow  209,  214,  217,  219,  224 
Traders  188 
Trading  privileges  192 

posts,  fortified  196 
Treadwell  mine  29-30,  275 
Treeless  country  77,  87,  236,  244 
Trees  in  proximity  to  glaciers   52-53, 
130,  251-252 

diameters  240,  241,  252 
Trelease,  Prof.  Wm.  xxxiv,  xxxvi,  18 
Trout  stream  23,  82 
Trudeau,  Dr.  E.  L.  xxxv 
Tundras  68-69,  105-107,  234,  265,  267 
Tuolumne  River,  Calif.  119 
Turner  Glacier  55-56,  60,  123,  131 
Turtle  doves  7 
Tyonek  saltery  350 

Uyak  Bay  78-79 

Ugak  Island  fox  farm  360 

Umiaks  178-181 

Umnak  Island  291,  292,  312 

Unalaska  90-94,  168,  196 
spruces  introduced  245 
temperature  and  rainfall  268 

Unimak  Island  90 

Upper  Yukon  34 

Utah,  Bad  Lands  5,  6 

Vaccinium  249,  250 

Varied  Thrush — see  Oregon  Robin 

Vancouver,  George  130,  190,  191-192, 

262 
Island  19,  20,  22 

Vassar  Glacier  69, 127 

Verdure  79,  82,  83,  114,  133 

Veniaminof  196-198,  295,  332 

Viburnum  pauciflorum  249,  250 

Victoria  19,  129 


INDEX 


383 


Violets  6r,  222 
Virgin  Bay  68,  69,  74 
Volcanic  peaks — 

Edgecumbe  50,  190 

Iliamna  76 

Isanotski  90 

Pavlof  88 

Redoubt  76 

Shishaldin  90 
Volcanic  shower  305-306 
Volcano,  newest  (Bogoslof)  291-336 
Volcanoes,  chain  133-134,  264 

Wagtail,  Siberian  yellow  230 
Walrus  Island  99 

hides  101 
Warbler,  lutescent  28,  40,  217 

pileolated  206,  217,  222,  223 

summer  or  yellow  19,  61,  213,  217, 

222,  224,  225 
War  canoes  141 
Washburn,  M.  L.,  xxiii,  xxxv 

article  on  fox  farming  357-365 
Water  Ouzel  51 
Water-taking  104 
'Weary  Willie'  211 
Weather  in  June  77 

record  268 

Wellesley  Glacier  69,  127 
Whale  fishing  199 
Whalers  104,  108,  178,  179,  199 
Western  Union    Telegraph   Co.    201, 

203 


Whaling  fleet  103,  199 

White  cedar  141 

White  Pass,  birds  33,  2IO,  21 1 

Custom  House  33 

excursion  31-34 

railroad  terminus  33,  34 
White  River  266 
Wingham  Island  187 
Willows  61,  225,  239,  249,  250,  252 
Wind  flowers  222 
Winter  Wren  24 
Wood  Island  224,  245 
Woodpecker,  Harris  206 

Red-throated  28 
Wrangell  148,  208,  209,  210,  260 

population  273 
Wrangell  Land  199 

Narrows  28 

Wren,  Winter  85,  218,  224 
Wyoming  plains  4 

Yakutat  Bay  52-61,  247,  260-261 

birds  61,  216-219 

glaciers  59,  122,  131 

sealing  village  60,  158-165 

strawberries  115,  218 
Yale  Glacier  69,  126 
Yellow  poppy  98,  102,  227,  231 
Yemans,  Dr.  H.  W.  307,  322,  336 
Yosemite  Valley  125 
Yukon  and  White  Pass  Railroad  31 
Yukon   River   198-199,  201,  235,  258, 

266-267 


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